Goodfellow Materials Power Historic Fusion Ignition Breakthrough at LLNL
On 5 December 2022, the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) achieved fusion ignition at the National Ignition Facility (NIF) — the first time in history that a laboratory experiment produced more energy from a fusion reaction than was used to initiate it.
The experiment involved firing 192 high-powered lasers onto a target of deuterium and tritium roughly the size of a BB pellet. Delivering 2.05 megajoules of laser energy, LLNL scientists achieved a fusion energy output of 3.15 megajoules — a net energy gain that confirms the fundamental principles of inertial confinement fusion. The result was peer-reviewed and independently verified.
Goodfellow supplied critical specialist materials that contributed directly to this achievement — materials selected and delivered to the precise specifications the experiment demanded.
Goodfellow's Head of Technical, Dr. Aphrodite Tomou, described the result as "exciting to have played a small, but critical part in supporting them on their journey to this discovery." The breakthrough was described by U.S. Secretary of Energy Jennifer M. Granholm as "one of the most impressive scientific feats of the 21st century."


The LLNL historic experiment achieved the first instance of scientific breakeven controlled fusion, with an energy gain factor of 1.5.
This milestone represents a transformative step toward fusion as a viable source of clean, near-limitless energy — and a demonstration of the role precision materials supply plays in enabling scientific discovery at the highest level.
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Materials Used in Fusion Research
Goodfellow Cambridge provides a comprehensive selection of advanced materials designed specifically for fusion research applications. Our materials meet the highest standards for durability, stability, and performance in extreme environments. Additionally, we offer custom manufacturing and material production services—if our standard product range doesn’t meet your needs, please contact us to discuss tailored solutions.
Metals with High Hydrogen Permeability for Fusion Research Applications
In fusion research, metals with high hydrogen permeability play critical roles in processes like hydrogen separation and tritium recovery. Goodfellow can support the following key metals and their alloys for optimizing hydrogen and tritium management in fusion reactors. Their selection depends on specific application requirements, including permeability, strength, selectivity for hydrogen and resistance to embrittlement.
PALLADIUM ALLOYS
- Palladium/Silver Alloy Tube (Pd75/Ag25) Palladium silver alloy tube (Pd75/Ag25) provides hydrogen permeability, mechanical strength, and thermal stability for membrane reactors, hydrogen purification, selective gas delivery, and long‑term transport studies.each
Starting at $630.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesPalladium silver alloy tube (Pd75/Ag25) provides hydrogen permeability, mechanical strength, and thermal stability for membrane reactors, hydrogen purification, selective gas delivery, and long‑term transport studies. - Palladium/Silver Alloy Spooled Wire (Pd75/Ag25) Palladium silver alloy spooled wire (Pd75/Ag25) delivers conductivity, catalytic behaviour, and corrosion resistance in a continuous format for precision coils, interconnects, catalytic electrodes, hydrogen sensors, and microcoil research.each
Starting at $471.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesPalladium silver alloy spooled wire (Pd75/Ag25) delivers conductivity, catalytic behaviour, and corrosion resistance in a continuous format for precision coils, interconnects, catalytic electrodes, hydrogen sensors, and microcoil research. - Palladium/Silver Alloy Foil (Pd77/Ag23) Palladium silver alloy foil (Pd77/Ag23) provides conductivity, catalytic activity, and corrosion resistance for catalytic membranes, electrical connectors, fuel cell interfaces, and thin‑film research in gas separation and electrochemistry.each
Starting at $456.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesPalladium silver alloy foil (Pd77/Ag23) provides conductivity, catalytic activity, and corrosion resistance for catalytic membranes, electrical connectors, fuel cell interfaces, and thin‑film research in gas separation and electrochemistry. - Palladium/Silver Alloy Foil (Pd75/Ag25) Palladium silver alloy foil (Pd75/Ag25) offers corrosion resistance, electrical conductivity, and catalytic performance for fuel cell electrodes, hydrogen membranes, high‑reliability contacts, and optical or electrochemical research layers.each
Starting at $330.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesPalladium silver alloy foil (Pd75/Ag25) offers corrosion resistance, electrical conductivity, and catalytic performance for fuel cell electrodes, hydrogen membranes, high‑reliability contacts, and optical or electrochemical research layers. - Palladium/Silver Alloy Foil (Light Tight) (Pd77/Ag23) Palladium silver alloy foil (light tight) offers conductivity, corrosion resistance, and complete light blocking for optical enclosures, catalytic membranes, and precision sensing instruments.each
Starting at $1,190.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesPalladium silver alloy foil (light tight) offers conductivity, corrosion resistance, and complete light blocking for optical enclosures, catalytic membranes, and precision sensing instruments. - Palladium/Silver Alloy Foil (Light Tight) (Pd75/Ag25) Palladium silver alloy foil (light tight) provides electrical conductivity, catalytic activity, and full optical opacity for photodetector shields, optical masks, and high‑precision electrochemical films.each
Starting at $397.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesPalladium silver alloy foil (light tight) provides electrical conductivity, catalytic activity, and full optical opacity for photodetector shields, optical masks, and high‑precision electrochemical films. - Palladium/Silver Alloy Disk (Pd75/Ag25) Palladium silver alloy disk offers hydrogen permeability, thermal stability, and catalytic behaviour for gas separation membranes, hydrogen sensors, catalytic surfaces, and thin‑film substrates.each
Starting at $174.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesPalladium silver alloy disk offers hydrogen permeability, thermal stability, and catalytic behaviour for gas separation membranes, hydrogen sensors, catalytic surfaces, and thin‑film substrates. - Palladium/Nickel Alloy Plain Weave Gauze (Pd95/Ni5) Palladium nickel plain weave gauze provides catalytic activity, corrosion resistance, and structural flexibility for catalyst beds, hydrogen purification filters, and electrochemical electrode frameworks.each
Starting at $349.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesPalladium nickel plain weave gauze provides catalytic activity, corrosion resistance, and structural flexibility for catalyst beds, hydrogen purification filters, and electrochemical electrode frameworks. - Palladium/Copper Alloy Foil (Pd60/Cu40) Palladium copper alloy foil combines catalytic performance, electrical conductivity, and mechanical strength for hydrogen membranes, catalytic layers, and conductive foils in advanced electronics.each
Starting at $570.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesPalladium copper alloy foil combines catalytic performance, electrical conductivity, and mechanical strength for hydrogen membranes, catalytic layers, and conductive foils in advanced electronics. - Palladium/Copper Alloy Foil (Light Tight) (Pd60/Cu40) Palladium copper alloy foil (light tight) provides catalytic activity, conductivity, and full light blocking for optical shields, catalytic electrodes, hydrogen membranes, and sensitive electronic housings.each
Starting at $680.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesPalladium copper alloy foil (light tight) provides catalytic activity, conductivity, and full light blocking for optical shields, catalytic electrodes, hydrogen membranes, and sensitive electronic housings. - Palladium/Chromium Alloy Foil (Pd94/Cr6) Palladium chromium alloy foil offers corrosion resistance, hardness, and catalytic activity for fuel cell electrodes, hydrogen membranes, microcomponents, and chemically demanding thin‑film systems.each
Starting at $274.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesPalladium chromium alloy foil offers corrosion resistance, hardness, and catalytic activity for fuel cell electrodes, hydrogen membranes, microcomponents, and chemically demanding thin‑film systems. - Palladium/Chromium Alloy Foil (Light Tight) (Pd94/Cr6) Palladium chromium alloy foil (light tight) provides a pinhole‑free, opaque barrier with corrosion resistance and catalytic performance for optical masking, detector shielding, and high‑precision catalytic systems.each
Starting at $329.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesPalladium chromium alloy foil (light tight) provides a pinhole‑free, opaque barrier with corrosion resistance and catalytic performance for optical masking, detector shielding, and high‑precision catalytic systems.
VANADIUM ALLOYS
- Vanadium/Niobium Alloy Rod (V65/Nb35) Vanadium niobium alloy rod (V65/Nb35) combining toughness and high‑temperature stability for aerospace parts, reactor components, and superconducting studies.each
Starting at $0.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesVanadium niobium alloy rod (V65/Nb35) combining toughness and high‑temperature stability for aerospace parts, reactor components, and superconducting studies. - Vanadium/Chromium Alloy Precursor Powder (V75/Cr25) Vanadium/chromium alloy precursor powder (V75/Cr25) with uniform composition for high‑temperature alloys, wear‑resistant coatings, and hydrogen‑storage research.each
Starting at $361.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesVanadium/chromium alloy precursor powder (V75/Cr25) with uniform composition for high‑temperature alloys, wear‑resistant coatings, and hydrogen‑storage research.
TUNGSTEN ALLOYS
- Tungsten/Titanium Alloy Precursor Powder (W95/Ti5) Tungsten/titanium alloy precursor powder (W95/Ti5) with high strength, toughness, and thermal stability for aerospace structures, defence materials, and extreme‑environment coatings.each
Starting at $424.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten/titanium alloy precursor powder (W95/Ti5) with high strength, toughness, and thermal stability for aerospace structures, defence materials, and extreme‑environment coatings. - Tungsten/Silver Alloy Precursor Powder (W90/Ag10) Tungsten/silver alloy precursor powder (W90/Ag10) with conductive, thermally stable properties for contact materials, aerospace thermal components, and high‑current switching.each
Starting at $361.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten/silver alloy precursor powder (W90/Ag10) with conductive, thermally stable properties for contact materials, aerospace thermal components, and high‑current switching. - Tungsten/Rhenium Alloy Straight Wire (W95/Re5) Tungsten rhenium alloy straight wire (W95/Re5) providing strength, ductility, and emission stability for X‑ray cathodes, aerospace thermocouples, and heater wires.each
Starting at $393.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten rhenium alloy straight wire (W95/Re5) providing strength, ductility, and emission stability for X‑ray cathodes, aerospace thermocouples, and heater wires. - Tungsten/Rhenium Alloy Spooled Wire (W97/Re3) Tungsten rhenium alloy spooled wire (W97/Re3) with high strength, reduced brittleness, and thermal stability for furnace coils, sensors, and electron‑beam filaments.each
Starting at $308.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten rhenium alloy spooled wire (W97/Re3) with high strength, reduced brittleness, and thermal stability for furnace coils, sensors, and electron‑beam filaments. - Tungsten/Rhenium Alloy Spooled Wire (W95/Re5) Tungsten rhenium alloy spooled wire (W95/Re5) offering ductility, creep resistance, and stability for emitters, thermocouples, and furnace elements.each
Starting at $284.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten rhenium alloy spooled wire (W95/Re5) offering ductility, creep resistance, and stability for emitters, thermocouples, and furnace elements. - Tungsten/Rhenium Alloy Spooled Wire (W75/Re25) Tungsten rhenium alloy spooled wire (W75/Re25) with flexibility, oxidation resistance, and thermal endurance for thermocouples, filaments, and heating coils.each
Starting at $296.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten rhenium alloy spooled wire (W75/Re25) with flexibility, oxidation resistance, and thermal endurance for thermocouples, filaments, and heating coils. - Tungsten/Rhenium Alloy Spooled Wire (W74/Re26) Tungsten rhenium alloy spooled wire (W74/Re26) combining ductility, thermal stability, and conductivity for thermocouples, emitters, and furnace heaters.each
Starting at $310.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten rhenium alloy spooled wire (W74/Re26) combining ductility, thermal stability, and conductivity for thermocouples, emitters, and furnace heaters. - Tungsten/Rhenium Alloy Spooled Wire (W70/Re30) Tungsten rhenium alloy spooled wire (W70/Re30) offering flexibility, creep resistance, and emission stability for thermocouples, heating elements, and vacuum filaments.each
Starting at $393.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten rhenium alloy spooled wire (W70/Re30) offering flexibility, creep resistance, and emission stability for thermocouples, heating elements, and vacuum filaments. - Tungsten/Rhenium Alloy Rod (W75/Re25) Tungsten rhenium alloy rod (W75/Re25) with toughness, creep resistance, and thermal endurance for high‑temperature structures, thermocouple sheaths, and furnace parts.each
Starting at $1,640.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten rhenium alloy rod (W75/Re25) with toughness, creep resistance, and thermal endurance for high‑temperature structures, thermocouple sheaths, and furnace parts. - Tungsten/Rhenium Alloy Foil (Light Tight) (W90/Re10) Tungsten rhenium alloy foil (light tight) (W90/Re10) providing pinhole‑free shielding, thermal stability, and ductility for vacuum tubes, photonic detectors, and aerospace electronics.each
Starting at $0.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten rhenium alloy foil (light tight) (W90/Re10) providing pinhole‑free shielding, thermal stability, and ductility for vacuum tubes, photonic detectors, and aerospace electronics. - Tungsten/Nickel/Iron Alloy Rod (W95/Ni3.5/Fe1.5) Tungsten nickel iron alloy rod (W95/Ni3.5/Fe1.5) with very high density, strength, and machinability for penetrators, balance weights, shielding, and high‑load tooling.each
Starting at $444.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten nickel iron alloy rod (W95/Ni3.5/Fe1.5) with very high density, strength, and machinability for penetrators, balance weights, shielding, and high‑load tooling. - Tungsten/Nickel/Iron Alloy Pellets (W70/Ni20/Fe10) Tungsten nickel iron alloy pellets (W70/Ni20/Fe10) with high density, strength, and toughness for shielding, counterweights, heavy alloys, and defense components.each
Starting at $125.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten nickel iron alloy pellets (W70/Ni20/Fe10) with high density, strength, and toughness for shielding, counterweights, heavy alloys, and defense components. - Tungsten/Copper Alloy Tube (W80/Cu20) Tungsten copper alloy tube (W80/Cu20) providing arc resistance, stability, and conductivity for propulsion hardware, EDM tubes, and pulsed‑power conduits.each
Starting at $187.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten copper alloy tube (W80/Cu20) providing arc resistance, stability, and conductivity for propulsion hardware, EDM tubes, and pulsed‑power conduits. - Tungsten/Copper Alloy Tube (W60/Cu40) Tungsten copper alloy tube (W60/Cu40) balancing wear resistance and conductivity for EDM guides, cooling channels, and HV conductive paths.each
Starting at $221.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten copper alloy tube (W60/Cu40) balancing wear resistance and conductivity for EDM guides, cooling channels, and HV conductive paths. - Tungsten/Copper Alloy Straight Wire (W60/Cu40) Tungsten copper alloy straight wire (W60/Cu40) combining conductivity and heat resistance for EDM tooling, HV contacts, welding leads, and high‑energy assemblies.each
Starting at $437.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten copper alloy straight wire (W60/Cu40) combining conductivity and heat resistance for EDM tooling, HV contacts, welding leads, and high‑energy assemblies. - Tungsten/Copper Alloy Foil (W80/Cu20) Tungsten copper alloy foil (W80/Cu20) with high tungsten strength and wear resistance for EDM electrodes, shielding foils, and high‑current aerospace or power systems.each
Starting at $80.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten copper alloy foil (W80/Cu20) with high tungsten strength and wear resistance for EDM electrodes, shielding foils, and high‑current aerospace or power systems. - Tungsten/Copper Alloy Foil (W72/Cu28) Tungsten copper alloy foil (W72/Cu28) offering arc resistance and conduction for power switching, shielding layers, EDM tools, and high‑vacuum systems.each
Starting at $211.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten copper alloy foil (W72/Cu28) offering arc resistance and conduction for power switching, shielding layers, EDM tools, and high‑vacuum systems. - Tungsten/Copper Alloy Foil (W65/Cu35) Tungsten copper alloy foil (W65/Cu35) with arc resistance, mechanical stability, and conductivity for switching contacts, thermal foils, and high‑power electronic barriers.each
Starting at $305.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten copper alloy foil (W65/Cu35) with arc resistance, mechanical stability, and conductivity for switching contacts, thermal foils, and high‑power electronic barriers. - Tungsten/Copper Alloy Foil (W60/Cu40) Tungsten copper alloy foil (W60/Cu40) balancing strength and conductivity for high‑current contacts, heat spreaders, EDM/welding electrodes, and conductive barriers.each
Starting at $159.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten copper alloy foil (W60/Cu40) balancing strength and conductivity for high‑current contacts, heat spreaders, EDM/welding electrodes, and conductive barriers. - Tungsten/Copper Alloy Foil (Light Tight) (W80/Cu20) Tungsten copper alloy foil (light tight) (W80/Cu20) with high tungsten strength and conductivity for pinhole‑free shielding, conductive barriers, and high‑power vacuum electronics.each
Starting at $403.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesTungsten copper alloy foil (light tight) (W80/Cu20) with high tungsten strength and conductivity for pinhole‑free shielding, conductive barriers, and high‑power vacuum electronics.
NICKEL ALLOYS
- Magnetic Shape Memory Alloy Bar (Ni50/Mn28/Ga22 at%) Magnetic shape memory alloy bar (Ni50/Mn28/Ga22): ferromagnetic Heusler alloy with field‑induced reversible deformation via twin boundary motion. Used in fast actuators, micro‑robotics, and magnetocaloric devices; notable shape memory and superelasticity.each
Starting at $1,140.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesMagnetic shape memory alloy bar (Ni50/Mn28/Ga22): ferromagnetic Heusler alloy with field‑induced reversible deformation via twin boundary motion. Used in fast actuators, micro‑robotics, and magnetocaloric devices; notable shape memory and superelasticity. - Polyimide-Insulated Nickel/Iron Alloy Wire (Ni70/Fe30) Polyimide‑insulated Ni70/Fe30 wire combines magnetic permeability, mechanical strength, and dielectric resilience for transformer windings, magnetic shielding, inductive coils, navigation sensors, and research into high‑temperature magnetic stability.each
Starting at $289.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesPolyimide‑insulated Ni70/Fe30 wire combines magnetic permeability, mechanical strength, and dielectric resilience for transformer windings, magnetic shielding, inductive coils, navigation sensors, and research into high‑temperature magnetic stability. - Polyimide-Insulated Nickel/Chromium Alloy Wire (Ni80/Cr20) Polyimide‑insulated Ni80/Cr20 wire delivers oxidation resistance, resistive stability, and dielectric protection for heater elements, resistive loads, jet‑engine sensors, and research on alloy oxidation kinetics and insulation performance at high heat.each
Starting at $284.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesPolyimide‑insulated Ni80/Cr20 wire delivers oxidation resistance, resistive stability, and dielectric protection for heater elements, resistive loads, jet‑engine sensors, and research on alloy oxidation kinetics and insulation performance at high heat. - Nickel/Zirconium Alloy Precursor Powder (Ni70/Zr30) Nickel/zirconium alloy precursor powder (Ni70/Zr30) offers purity and uniform particle distribution for corrosion‑resistant alloys, hydrogen‑storage materials, and metallic‑glass development.each
Starting at $262.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesNickel/zirconium alloy precursor powder (Ni70/Zr30) offers purity and uniform particle distribution for corrosion‑resistant alloys, hydrogen‑storage materials, and metallic‑glass development. - Nickel/Vanadium Alloy Sputtering Target (Ni93/V7) Nickel vanadium alloy sputtering target (Ni93/V7) provides corrosion resistance, mechanical strength, and uniform thin‑film deposition for wear‑resistant, magnetic, and diffusion‑barrier coatings.each
Starting at $540.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesNickel vanadium alloy sputtering target (Ni93/V7) provides corrosion resistance, mechanical strength, and uniform thin‑film deposition for wear‑resistant, magnetic, and diffusion‑barrier coatings. - Nickel/Vanadium Alloy Pellets (Ni93/V7) Nickel vanadium alloy pellets (Ni93/V7) offer strength, corrosion resistance, and thermal stability for specialty alloys, magnetic components, and high‑strength fasteners.each
Starting at $74.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesNickel vanadium alloy pellets (Ni93/V7) offer strength, corrosion resistance, and thermal stability for specialty alloys, magnetic components, and high‑strength fasteners. - Nickel/Titanium Alloy Precursor Powder (Ni90/Ti10) Nickel/titanium alloy precursor powder (Ni90/Ti10) provides uniform elemental distribution and thermal stability for producing engineered alloys used in medical devices, aerospace components, and additive manufacturing.each
Starting at $344.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesNickel/titanium alloy precursor powder (Ni90/Ti10) provides uniform elemental distribution and thermal stability for producing engineered alloys used in medical devices, aerospace components, and additive manufacturing. - Nickel/Titanium Alloy Powder (Ni70/Ti30) Nickel titanium alloy powder (Ni70/Ti30) offers shape memory, superelasticity, and corrosion resistance for additive manufacturing of biomedical devices, actuators, and high‑performance fasteners.each
Starting at $301.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesNickel titanium alloy powder (Ni70/Ti30) offers shape memory, superelasticity, and corrosion resistance for additive manufacturing of biomedical devices, actuators, and high‑performance fasteners. - Nickel/Silicon Alloy Powder (Ni62/Si38) Nickel silicon alloy powder (Ni62/Si38) provides hardness, wear resistance, and thermal stability for producing wear‑resistant coatings, thermal barriers, and high‑temperature sliding components.each
Starting at $376.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesNickel silicon alloy powder (Ni62/Si38) provides hardness, wear resistance, and thermal stability for producing wear‑resistant coatings, thermal barriers, and high‑temperature sliding components. - Nickel/Molybdenum Alloy Precursor Powder (Ni84/Mo16) Nickel/molybdenum alloy precursor powder (Ni84/Mo16) is a uniform blend for corrosion‑resistant alloy production in chemical, marine, and energy applications, supporting additive manufacturing and high‑strength components.each
Starting at $393.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesNickel/molybdenum alloy precursor powder (Ni84/Mo16) is a uniform blend for corrosion‑resistant alloy production in chemical, marine, and energy applications, supporting additive manufacturing and high‑strength components. - Nickel/Manganese Alloy Spherical Powder (Ni75/Mn25) Nickel manganese alloy spherical powder (Ni75/Mn25) provides strength, corrosion resistance, and improved flowability for additive manufacturing, thermal spray coatings, and wear‑resistant structural parts.each
Starting at $288.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesNickel manganese alloy spherical powder (Ni75/Mn25) provides strength, corrosion resistance, and improved flowability for additive manufacturing, thermal spray coatings, and wear‑resistant structural parts. - Nickel/Manganese Alloy Precursor Powder (Ni92/Mn8) Nickel/manganese alloy precursor powder (Ni92/Mn8) is a high‑purity blend for controlled alloy production, offering thermal stability and uniform dispersion for battery electrodes, wear‑resistant steels, and catalytic systems.each
Starting at $351.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesNickel/manganese alloy precursor powder (Ni92/Mn8) is a high‑purity blend for controlled alloy production, offering thermal stability and uniform dispersion for battery electrodes, wear‑resistant steels, and catalytic systems. - Nickel/Iron/Molybdenum Alloy Tube (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) Nickel iron molybdenum alloy tube (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) offers high permeability, low core loss, and corrosion resistance for shielding enclosures, inductive housings, and transformer sleeves.each
Starting at $429.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesNickel iron molybdenum alloy tube (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) offers high permeability, low core loss, and corrosion resistance for shielding enclosures, inductive housings, and transformer sleeves. - Nickel/Iron/Molybdenum Alloy Sputtering Target (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) Nickel iron molybdenum alloy sputtering target (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) provides stable magnetic properties, low film stress, and uniform thin‑film deposition for magnetic memory, inductors, sensors, and shielding layers.each
Starting at $431.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesNickel iron molybdenum alloy sputtering target (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) provides stable magnetic properties, low film stress, and uniform thin‑film deposition for magnetic memory, inductors, sensors, and shielding layers. - Nickel/Iron/Molybdenum Alloy Spooled Wire (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) Nickel iron molybdenum alloy spooled wire (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) offers soft magnetic properties, low core losses, and corrosion resistance for sensor coils, transformer windings, and shielding conductors in precision devices.each
Starting at $181.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesNickel iron molybdenum alloy spooled wire (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) offers soft magnetic properties, low core losses, and corrosion resistance for sensor coils, transformer windings, and shielding conductors in precision devices. - Nickel/Iron/Molybdenum Alloy Rod (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) Nickel iron molybdenum alloy rod (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) provides soft magnetic behavior, high saturation induction, and dimensional stability for machined magnetic components, transformer cores, shielding bars, and low‑noise inductive devices.each
Starting at $121.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesNickel iron molybdenum alloy rod (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) provides soft magnetic behavior, high saturation induction, and dimensional stability for machined magnetic components, transformer cores, shielding bars, and low‑noise inductive devices. - Nickel/Iron/Molybdenum Alloy Pellets (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) Nickel‑iron molybdenum alloy pellets (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) provide high permeability, low losses, and stability for magnetic alloy melting, core fabrication, and thin‑film targets.each
Starting at $167.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesNickel‑iron molybdenum alloy pellets (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) provide high permeability, low losses, and stability for magnetic alloy melting, core fabrication, and thin‑film targets. - Nickel/Iron/Molybdenum Alloy Foil (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) Nickel‑iron molybdenum alloy foil (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) offers soft magnetic performance, low coercivity, and thermal stability for shielding, transformer laminations, and precision circuits.each
Starting at $123.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesNickel‑iron molybdenum alloy foil (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) offers soft magnetic performance, low coercivity, and thermal stability for shielding, transformer laminations, and precision circuits. - Nickel/Iron/Molybdenum Alloy Foil (Light Tight) (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) Nickel‑iron molybdenum alloy foil (light tight) (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) provides pinhole‑free optical blocking and soft magnetic behavior for shielding, apertures, and precision enclosures.each
Starting at $369.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesNickel‑iron molybdenum alloy foil (light tight) (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) provides pinhole‑free optical blocking and soft magnetic behavior for shielding, apertures, and precision enclosures. - Nickel/Iron/Molybdenum Alloy Disk (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) Nickel‑iron molybdenum alloy disk (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) offers high permeability, low losses, and dimensional stability for magnetic cores, shielding plates, and sensor substrates.each
Starting at $155.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesNickel‑iron molybdenum alloy disk (Ni80/Fe15.5/Mo4.5) offers high permeability, low losses, and dimensional stability for magnetic cores, shielding plates, and sensor substrates.
STEEL ALLOYS
- AISI 301 Stainless Steel Disk AISI 301 stainless steel disk is a metastable austenitic alloy offering high tensile strength, corrosion resistance, and strain-induced martensitic transformation, supporting springs, clamping disks, vibration-resistant interfaces, and fatigue and TRIP behavior research.each
Starting at $148.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesAISI 301 stainless steel disk is a metastable austenitic alloy offering high tensile strength, corrosion resistance, and strain-induced martensitic transformation, supporting springs, clamping disks, vibration-resistant interfaces, and fatigue and TRIP behavior research. - AISI 316 Stainless Steel Foam AISI 316 stainless steel foam provides high porosity, low density, and corrosion resistance, supporting biomedical scaffolds, filtration, catalysis, and energy absorption research.each
Starting at $456.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesAISI 316 stainless steel foam provides high porosity, low density, and corrosion resistance, supporting biomedical scaffolds, filtration, catalysis, and energy absorption research. - Ion Implanted AISI 316 Stainless Steel Disk Ion-implanted AISI 316 stainless steel disk features enhanced surface hardness, wear resistance, and corrosion performance for biomedical, nuclear, and chemical applications.each
Starting at $148.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesIon-implanted AISI 316 stainless steel disk features enhanced surface hardness, wear resistance, and corrosion performance for biomedical, nuclear, and chemical applications. - AISI 416 Stainless Steel Rod AISI 416 stainless steel rod offers free-machining performance with good strength and corrosion resistance, supporting precision shafts, valves, fasteners, and machinability research.each
Starting at $204.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesAISI 416 stainless steel rod offers free-machining performance with good strength and corrosion resistance, supporting precision shafts, valves, fasteners, and machinability research. - Nitronic® 60 Stainless Steel Rod Nitronic 60 stainless steel rod provides wear and galling resistance, oxidation stability, and high strength for valve stems, anti‑seize fasteners, bushings, pump hardware, and research components operating under heat, vibration, or poor lubrication.each
Starting at $394.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesNitronic 60 stainless steel rod provides wear and galling resistance, oxidation stability, and high strength for valve stems, anti‑seize fasteners, bushings, pump hardware, and research components operating under heat, vibration, or poor lubrication. - AISI 316 Stainless Steel Twill Dutch Gauze AISI 316 stainless steel twill dutch gauze provides fine filtration and corrosion resistance, supporting petrochemical processing, pharmaceuticals, and separation research.each
Starting at $318.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesAISI 316 stainless steel twill dutch gauze provides fine filtration and corrosion resistance, supporting petrochemical processing, pharmaceuticals, and separation research. - AISI 410 Stainless Steel Foil AISI 410 stainless steel foil delivers high strength, wear resistance, and moderate corrosion resistance, supporting catalyst carriers, shims, exhaust components, and phase transformation research.each
Starting at $389.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesAISI 410 stainless steel foil delivers high strength, wear resistance, and moderate corrosion resistance, supporting catalyst carriers, shims, exhaust components, and phase transformation research. - AISI 316L Stainless Steel Disk AISI 316L stainless steel disk offers corrosion resistance and strength in harsh environments, supporting valve seats, vacuum assemblies, tribology studies, and AM qualification.each
Starting at $148.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesAISI 316L stainless steel disk offers corrosion resistance and strength in harsh environments, supporting valve seats, vacuum assemblies, tribology studies, and AM qualification. - AISI 316 Stainless Steel Coil AISI 316 stainless steel coil offers corrosion resistance and thermal stability, supporting instrumentation, heat exchangers, filtration systems, and cleanroom applications.each
Starting at $345.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesAISI 316 stainless steel coil offers corrosion resistance and thermal stability, supporting instrumentation, heat exchangers, filtration systems, and cleanroom applications. - AISI 304 Stainless Steel Disk AISI 304 stainless steel disk offers corrosion resistance, strength, and machinability, supporting valve seats, rotors, sealing plates, hygienic equipment, and tribological research.each
Starting at $148.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesAISI 304 stainless steel disk offers corrosion resistance, strength, and machinability, supporting valve seats, rotors, sealing plates, hygienic equipment, and tribological research. - AISI 316 Stainless Steel Foil (Light Tight) AISI 316 stainless steel foil (light tight) provides optical opacity, corrosion resistance, and mechanical integrity, supporting radiation shielding, photonic packaging, and fusion research.each
Starting at $266.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesAISI 316 stainless steel foil (light tight) provides optical opacity, corrosion resistance, and mechanical integrity, supporting radiation shielding, photonic packaging, and fusion research. - AISI 304 Stainless Steel Foil AISI 304 stainless steel foil delivers corrosion resistance, ductility, and thermal stability, supporting heat exchangers, honeycomb composites, shielding wraps, and advanced R\&D assemblies.each
Starting at $218.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesAISI 304 stainless steel foil delivers corrosion resistance, ductility, and thermal stability, supporting heat exchangers, honeycomb composites, shielding wraps, and advanced R\&D assemblies. - AISI 302 Stainless Steel Foil AISI 302 stainless steel foil delivers corrosion resistance, tensile strength, and ductility in thin format, supporting shielding layers, diaphragms, flexible displays, and extreme-environment laminate research.each
Starting at $199.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesAISI 302 stainless steel foil delivers corrosion resistance, tensile strength, and ductility in thin format, supporting shielding layers, diaphragms, flexible displays, and extreme-environment laminate research. - AISI 304 Stainless Steel Powder AISI 304 stainless steel powder offers corrosion resistance and ductility with powder metallurgy versatility, supporting additive manufacturing, coatings, sintered parts, and microstructure research.each
Starting at $345.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesAISI 304 stainless steel powder offers corrosion resistance and ductility with powder metallurgy versatility, supporting additive manufacturing, coatings, sintered parts, and microstructure research. - AISI 316L Stainless Steel Tube AISI 316L stainless steel tube offers low-carbon corrosion resistance, weldability, and durability in aggressive environments, supporting bioprocess piping, offshore structures, heat exchangers, and corrosion research.each
Starting at $208.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesAISI 316L stainless steel tube offers low-carbon corrosion resistance, weldability, and durability in aggressive environments, supporting bioprocess piping, offshore structures, heat exchangers, and corrosion research. - AISI 420 Stainless Steel Rod AISI 420 stainless steel rod delivers high hardness and strength after heat treatment, supporting shafts, surgical tools, fixtures, and advanced machining and AM research.each
Starting at $233.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesAISI 420 stainless steel rod delivers high hardness and strength after heat treatment, supporting shafts, surgical tools, fixtures, and advanced machining and AM research. - AISI 430 Stainless Steel Coil AISI 430 stainless steel coil provides oxidation resistance, formability, and soft magnetic properties, supporting appliances, automotive trim, magnetic components, and alloy optimization research.each
Starting at $449.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesAISI 430 stainless steel coil provides oxidation resistance, formability, and soft magnetic properties, supporting appliances, automotive trim, magnetic components, and alloy optimization research. - Duplex Stainless Steel Foil (Light Tight) Duplex stainless steel foil (light tight) delivers corrosion resistance, mechanical strength, and complete light blocking for optical shielding, offshore sensors, and chemical processing barriers.each
Starting at $321.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesDuplex stainless steel foil (light tight) delivers corrosion resistance, mechanical strength, and complete light blocking for optical shielding, offshore sensors, and chemical processing barriers. - AISI 316L Stainless Steel Spherical Powder AISI 316L stainless steel spherical powder provides high flowability, uniform morphology, and corrosion resistance, supporting additive manufacturing, metal injection molding, thermal spray coatings, and cryogenic performance research.each
Starting at $240.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesAISI 316L stainless steel spherical powder provides high flowability, uniform morphology, and corrosion resistance, supporting additive manufacturing, metal injection molding, thermal spray coatings, and cryogenic performance research. - AISI 440C Stainless Steel Spherical Powder AISI 440C stainless steel spherical powder delivers high hardness, wear resistance, and good corrosion performance, supporting bearings, cutting tools, MIM, and additive manufacturing research.each
Starting at $252.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesAISI 440C stainless steel spherical powder delivers high hardness, wear resistance, and good corrosion performance, supporting bearings, cutting tools, MIM, and additive manufacturing research.
CERAMICS
- Yttria-stabilized Zirconia Washer YSZ washer: tough, chemically stable, thermally resistant flat‑ring geometry for high‑performance fastening and sealing; used as inert seals, non‑magnetic spacers, and insulating fixtures in harsh systems.each
Starting at $325.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesYSZ washer: tough, chemically stable, thermally resistant flat‑ring geometry for high‑performance fastening and sealing; used as inert seals, non‑magnetic spacers, and insulating fixtures in harsh systems. - Yttria-stabilized Zirconia Tube YSZ tube: ionically conductive, tough, thermally stable; tubular form for electrochemical and high‑temp systems including SOFC electrolytes, oxygen sensors, and reactor housings; supports transport and permeability studies.each
Starting at $1,890.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesYSZ tube: ionically conductive, tough, thermally stable; tubular form for electrochemical and high‑temp systems including SOFC electrolytes, oxygen sensors, and reactor housings; supports transport and permeability studies. - Yttria-stabilized Zirconia Tapered Wall Crucible YSZ tapered wall crucible: high‑temperature resistant, inert, mechanically stable; tapered walls enhance load distribution and reduce thermal stress; used for metal casting, crystal growth, and ceramic synthesis.each
Starting at $85.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesYSZ tapered wall crucible: high‑temperature resistant, inert, mechanically stable; tapered walls enhance load distribution and reduce thermal stress; used for metal casting, crystal growth, and ceramic synthesis. - Yttria-stabilized Zirconia Sputtering Target YSZ sputtering target: dense, high‑purity ceramic for PVD thin films; offers ionic conductivity, thermal stability, and plasma‑crack resistance; used for SOFC layers, optical coatings, and ionic‑conductor films.each
Starting at $431.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesYSZ sputtering target: dense, high‑purity ceramic for PVD thin films; offers ionic conductivity, thermal stability, and plasma‑crack resistance; used for SOFC layers, optical coatings, and ionic‑conductor films. - Yttria-stabilized Zirconia Round, shallow, straight sides Crucible YSZ round shallow straight‑sides crucible: thermally resistant, inert, mechanically strong; shallow design allows rapid heating and easy molten‑material access for glass formulation, metal casting, and powder synthesis.each
Starting at $80.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesYSZ round shallow straight‑sides crucible: thermally resistant, inert, mechanically strong; shallow design allows rapid heating and easy molten‑material access for glass formulation, metal casting, and powder synthesis. - Yttria-stabilized Zirconia Round Bottomed Boat Crucible YSZ round‑bottomed boat crucible: thermally stable, corrosion resistant, structurally robust; round bottom provides uniform heat distribution for vacuum evaporation, melting metals/glass, and ceramic processing.each
Starting at $145.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesYSZ round‑bottomed boat crucible: thermally stable, corrosion resistant, structurally robust; round bottom provides uniform heat distribution for vacuum evaporation, melting metals/glass, and ceramic processing. - Yttria-stabilized Zirconia Rectangular Crucible YSZ rectangular crucible: high‑temperature capability, inertness, structural integrity; suited for glass melting, metal smelting, and ceramic synthesis; enables uniform heating and efficient batch processing.each
Starting at $89.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesYSZ rectangular crucible: high‑temperature capability, inertness, structural integrity; suited for glass melting, metal smelting, and ceramic synthesis; enables uniform heating and efficient batch processing. - Yttria-stabilized Zirconia Powder YSZ powder: thermally stable, ionically conductive, chemically resistant; used for thermal barrier coatings, SOFC electrolytes, and biomedical implants; supports composite ceramics, ionic transport studies, and nanostructured systems.each
Starting at $295.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesYSZ powder: thermally stable, ionically conductive, chemically resistant; used for thermal barrier coatings, SOFC electrolytes, and biomedical implants; supports composite ceramics, ionic transport studies, and nanostructured systems. - Yttria-stabilized Zirconia Point Bottom Crucible YSZ point‑bottom crucible: high thermal resistance, phase stability, and chemical inertness; pointed base enables controlled melt flow for precision metallurgy, crystal growth, and high‑purity alloy preparation.each
Starting at $133.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesYSZ point‑bottom crucible: high thermal resistance, phase stability, and chemical inertness; pointed base enables controlled melt flow for precision metallurgy, crystal growth, and high‑purity alloy preparation. - Yttria-stabilized Zirconia Pellet Boat Crucible YSZ pellet boat crucible: thermally stable, chemically resistant, mechanically strong; suited for holding pellets or granules in high‑temperature processing, sintering ceramics, calcining catalysts, and heat‑treating metal powders with uniform heating.each
Starting at $186.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesYSZ pellet boat crucible: thermally stable, chemically resistant, mechanically strong; suited for holding pellets or granules in high‑temperature processing, sintering ceramics, calcining catalysts, and heat‑treating metal powders with uniform heating. - Fused Quartz Tube Fused quartz tube (high‑purity SiO₂) with low expansion and chemical resistance; endures rapid thermal cycling. Used for wafer diffusion, spectroscopic reactors in supercritical fluids, and ultra‑clean containers; coatings can suppress sodium diffusion.each
Starting at $269.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesFused quartz tube (high‑purity SiO₂) with low expansion and chemical resistance; endures rapid thermal cycling. Used for wafer diffusion, spectroscopic reactors in supercritical fluids, and ultra‑clean containers; coatings can suppress sodium diffusion. - Yttria-stabilized Zirconia Nut YSZ nut: hard, thermally stable, corrosion‑resistant ceramic fastener for demanding environments; used in corrosive fluid systems, aerospace housings, and semiconductor fixtures; studied for load stability and ceramic‑composite compatibility.each
Starting at $397.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesYSZ nut: hard, thermally stable, corrosion‑resistant ceramic fastener for demanding environments; used in corrosive fluid systems, aerospace housings, and semiconductor fixtures; studied for load stability and ceramic‑composite compatibility. - Fused Quartz Sputtering Target Fused quartz sputtering target (ultra‑clean SiO₂) for thin‑film deposition; chemically stable with low expansion. Supports RF/DC sputtering of dielectric/optical coatings; optional P/B doping for yield/adhesion while maintaining dielectric properties.each
Starting at $215.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesFused quartz sputtering target (ultra‑clean SiO₂) for thin‑film deposition; chemically stable with low expansion. Supports RF/DC sputtering of dielectric/optical coatings; optional P/B doping for yield/adhesion while maintaining dielectric properties. - Yttria-stabilized Zirconia Non-Woven Fabric YSZ non‑woven fabric: thermally resistant, chemically inert, porous ceramic textile for filtration, insulation, and catalytic substrates; used in SOFCs, gas filtration, and aerospace insulation; supports catalytic adhesion and composite reinforcement research.each
Starting at $313.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesYSZ non‑woven fabric: thermally resistant, chemically inert, porous ceramic textile for filtration, insulation, and catalytic substrates; used in SOFCs, gas filtration, and aerospace insulation; supports catalytic adhesion and composite reinforcement research. - Fused Quartz Sheet Fused quartz sheet with UV‑to‑IR transmission, low expansion, and chemical resistance. Suited for semiconductor processing, optical substrates, and lab ware; exhibits defined damping behavior and high shear modulus for geotechnical modeling and optics‑based sensors.each
Starting at $283.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesFused quartz sheet with UV‑to‑IR transmission, low expansion, and chemical resistance. Suited for semiconductor processing, optical substrates, and lab ware; exhibits defined damping behavior and high shear modulus for geotechnical modeling and optics‑based sensors. - Yttria-stabilized Zirconia Hexagonal Bolt YSZ hexagonal bolt: strong, corrosion‑resistant ceramic fastener with thermal stability; used in corrosive reactors, semiconductor chambers, and sterile or metal‑free systems; supports thermal‑cycling and ionic‑conductivity studies.each
Starting at $610.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesYSZ hexagonal bolt: strong, corrosion‑resistant ceramic fastener with thermal stability; used in corrosive reactors, semiconductor chambers, and sterile or metal‑free systems; supports thermal‑cycling and ionic‑conductivity studies. - Fused Quartz Rod Fused quartz rod (SiO₂ >99.9%) offering thermal stability, optical clarity, and chemical inertness with ultra‑low expansion. Used in semiconductor tools, high‑vacuum systems, optics, biomedical light delivery, alignment supports, and wear‑resistant rollers.each
Starting at $264.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesFused quartz rod (SiO₂ >99.9%) offering thermal stability, optical clarity, and chemical inertness with ultra‑low expansion. Used in semiconductor tools, high‑vacuum systems, optics, biomedical light delivery, alignment supports, and wear‑resistant rollers. - Yttria-stabilized Zirconia Granules YSZ granules: tough, stable ceramic particles with high ionic conductivity and thermal resistance; used for powder metallurgy, plasma spraying, thermal barriers, oxygen sensors, and dental ceramics.each
Starting at $176.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesYSZ granules: tough, stable ceramic particles with high ionic conductivity and thermal resistance; used for powder metallurgy, plasma spraying, thermal barriers, oxygen sensors, and dental ceramics. - Sapphire Single Crystal Sapphire single crystal with high hardness, thermal conductivity, and optical clarity. Anisotropic properties suit lasers, substrates, and radiation‑resistant windows; advanced growth improves uniformity and reduces defects.each
Starting at $240.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesSapphire single crystal with high hardness, thermal conductivity, and optical clarity. Anisotropic properties suit lasers, substrates, and radiation‑resistant windows; advanced growth improves uniformity and reduces defects. - Fused Quartz Powder Fused quartz powder (SiO₂ >99.9%) with controlled particle sizes for high‑temperature stability, low expansion, and chemical inertness. Used in investment casting shells, advanced ceramics, composite crucibles, and slurry‑based manufacturing with tuned rheology.each
Starting at $211.00
In stockDiscounts applied for volume purchasesFused quartz powder (SiO₂ >99.9%) with controlled particle sizes for high‑temperature stability, low expansion, and chemical inertness. Used in investment casting shells, advanced ceramics, composite crucibles, and slurry‑based manufacturing with tuned rheology.
Working as your experienced partner in the nuclear fusion sector, we can find and supply the highest quality materials for your products. Our nuclear energy applications and innovative alloys can help you achieve unparalleled performance and better energy efficiency in building and plant design.
Why Goodfellow?
- No minimum order
- Over 170,000 advanced materials and 5,000 reference materials
- Supply Chain Management:
sourcing custom materials for your needs - Materials customization:
Custom parts for prototyping | Full product modification | Micro-machining | Microfabrication | Rolling - Free and fast delivery:
Worldwide shipping and customs clearance, to your door. All orders are dispatched within 48 hours - Commercial arrangements:
Call off orders | Buffer stock | Fixed and contract pricing* | Discounts for increased volumes - We help you innovate into the future.


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Resources and References
Zinkle, S. J., & Was, G. S. (2013). Materials challenges in nuclear energy. Acta Materialia, 61(3), 735–758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2012.11.004
IAEA (2016) https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1715web-46541668.pdf, accessed January 2023




























































































