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Dysprosium

Dysprosium — Material Page
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Dysprosium (Dy, atomic number 66) is a heavy lanthanide with the highest magnetic moment of any element (10.6 µB per atom in the metallic state), extreme magnetic susceptibility at low temperatures, and — most critically for technology — the largest neutron absorption cross-section of any stable element (¹⁶⁴Dy thermal neutron σ ≈ 2,650 barn), making it simultaneously indispensable for permanent magnet coercivity enhancement and for nuclear reactor control applications. Dy has an HCP crystal structure, melting point of 1,412 °C, and density of 8.55 g/cm³; it is a heavy rare-earth element (HREE) extracted primarily from ion-adsorption clay deposits in southern China (the overwhelmingly dominant global source) and from monazite/bastnäsite ores. Dy is ferromagnetic below its Curie temperature of 88 K and has complex helical antiferromagnetic ordering between 88 K and 179 K (Néel temperature); above 179 K it is paramagnetic. The 4f¹⁰ electron configuration gives Dy its exceptional magnetic properties through strong spin-orbit coupling (J = 8, the maximum for a lanthanide).

The dominant and most strategically critical application of Dy is as an alloying addition to neodymium-iron-boron (Nd₂Fe₁₄B) permanent magnets — Dy substitution for Nd at the rare-earth site dramatically increases coercivity (resistance to demagnetization) at elevated temperatures (100–180 °C), enabling Nd-Dy-Fe-B magnets to operate in EV traction motors and wind turbine generators without irreversible demagnetization. Dy addition (typically 1–9 wt% as DyFe or DyH₂ grain boundary diffusion additions) increases intrinsic coercivity (Hci) from ~1,200 kA/m in pure Nd₂Fe₁₄B to >2,500 kA/m in Dy-substituted grades — essential for EV motors that must sustain >150 °C magnet temperatures during peak power operation. Each EV traction motor requires ~100–300 g Dy; rapid EV adoption has made Dy supply security a critical concern, with China controlling >90% of HREE production. Grain boundary diffusion of Dy or Tb into pre-sintered Nd-Fe-B magnets minimizes Dy use while maximizing coercivity at the grain boundary — the dominant commercial technique since ~2010.

¹⁶⁴Dy has the highest thermal neutron absorption cross-section of any stable nuclide (σ ≈ 2,650 barn — ~100× that of the standard control rod material ¹⁰B at 764 barn), making Dy-containing control rods exceptionally effective neutron absorbers in nuclear reactors, and DyₓHf₁₋ₓO₂ and Dy₂Ti₂O₇ spin-ice materials fundamental systems for studying frustrated magnetism and quantum spin liquid physics. Dy is used in burnable poison rods (as Dy₂O₃-UO₂ pellets) in light water reactors — Dy is a "self-regulating" burnable absorber because as ¹⁶⁴Dy burns up (¹⁶⁴Dy + n → ¹⁶⁵Dy), the transmutation products (¹⁶⁵Dy, ¹⁶⁶Dy) still absorb neutrons significantly, giving a flatter reactivity curve over core lifetime than ¹⁰B or Gd burnable poisons. Dy₂Ti₂O₇ (dysprosium titanate pyrochlore) is the prototype "spin ice" material — Ising spins on a pyrochlore lattice with geometrical frustration give rise to emergent magnetic monopole-like quasiparticles, making it a central system in quantum magnetism research.

General Properties

PropertyValueNotes
Atomic Number66Heavy lanthanide, Period 6; 4f¹⁰6s²; dominant oxidation state +3 (Dy³⁺ in DyCl₃, Dy₂O₃, Dy(NO₃)₃). Dy³⁺ (4f⁹, J = 15/2) has the highest Hund's rule J-value of any tripositive lanthanide ion and consequently the highest magnetic moment (~10.6 µB) — the basis of Dy's use in high-coercivity permanent magnets and in molecular nanomagnet (single-molecule magnet) research, where Dy³⁺-based SMMs hold blocking temperature records.
Atomic Mass162.500 uSeven naturally occurring isotopes: ¹⁵⁶Dy (0.056%, Stable*), ¹⁵⁸Dy (0.095%), ¹⁶⁰Dy (2.329%), ¹⁶¹Dy (18.889%), ¹⁶²Dy (25.475%), ¹⁶³Dy (24.896%), ¹⁶⁴Dy (28.260%). ¹⁶⁴Dy has the highest thermal neutron absorption cross-section of any stable nuclide (σ ≈ 2,650 barn). ¹⁶¹Dy and ¹⁶³Dy are NMR-active (both I = 5/2).
Density (20 °C)8.55 g/cm³Moderate-high density for a lanthanide — slightly heavier than Gd (7.90) and Tb (8.23), following the lanthanide contraction trend. Dy density is relevant to magnet volume calculations in EV traction motor design, where magnet mass and volume are constrained by rotor geometry.
Melting Point1,412 °C (1,685 K)High melting point for a lanthanide — consistent with Dy's position in the heavy lanthanide series. Processing requires vacuum arc melting or induction melting under Ar; Dy oxidizes rapidly in air above ~200 °C. Dy metal ingots for DyFe alloy and grain boundary diffusion source preparation are produced by metallothermic reduction of DyF₃ or DyCl₃ with Ca.
Boiling Point2,567 °CModerately high boiling point; relevant to vacuum deposition of Dy thin films for research applications and to Dy evaporation losses during vacuum arc melting of Dy-Fe master alloys for magnet production. Dy₂O₃ sputtering targets are used for PVD deposition of Dy-containing oxide films in semiconductor high-κ dielectric research.
Thermal Conductivity10.7 W/m·KLow thermal conductivity typical of heavy lanthanides — relevant to thermal management modeling of Dy-containing NdFeB magnets under high-current/high-frequency operation in EV traction motors where joule heating must be dissipated through the magnet assembly.
Electrical Resistivity57.0 nΩ·m (20 °C)Moderate resistivity; increases dramatically below the magnetic ordering temperatures (Néel: 179 K, Curie: 88 K) due to spin-disorder scattering changes at the phase transitions. Dy metal resistivity vs. temperature is a textbook example of magnetic contribution to electrical resistance in rare-earth metals.
Crystal StructureHCP (α-Dy), a = 3.590 Å, c = 5.650 Å (room temperature)HCP α-Dy is the stable form at RT; transforms to BCC β-Dy above ~1,381 °C. The HCP structure of Dy with strong magnetocrystalline anisotropy along the c-axis is the basis of its use in magnetostrictive alloys (Terfenol-D, Tb₀.₃Dy₀.₇Fe₂) — Tb provides anisotropy and Dy reduces the anisotropy temperature dependence, together producing giant magnetostrictive strain (~1,000–2,000 ppm) for sonar transducers and precision actuators.

Mechanical Properties

PropertyValueNotes
Tensile Strength~250 MPa (approximate)Approximate value for annealed Dy; direct measurement is limited due to Dy's chemical reactivity and rapid surface oxidation during specimen preparation. Dy is not used as a structural metal; its mechanical properties are relevant primarily to processing of Dy-containing NdFeB magnet precursor alloys and to DyFe grain boundary diffusion source foils.
Young's Modulus61 GPaLow-moderate modulus typical of heavy lanthanides. Relevant to modeling of Dy₂Ti₂O₇ pyrochlore ceramic mechanical behavior under thermal cycling in radiation-shielding and thermal barrier applications, and to magnetostrictive strain calculations for Terfenol-D (Tb-Dy-Fe) transducer design.
Hardness~72 HV / ~60 HB (annealed)Relatively soft, ductile metal comparable in hardness to mild steel. Dy can be machined under inert atmosphere and rolled into foil for sputtering targets and grain boundary diffusion source applications in NdFeB magnet processing.
Elongation at Break~20%Good ductility in high-purity annealed form — Dy can be rolled into foil and machined. Ductility decreases rapidly with oxide and nitride impurities at grain boundaries. Dy foil (99.9%+) is used as a sputtering target material and as DyFe grain boundary diffusion source in NdFeB magnet processing.
Poisson's Ratio0.25Typical for an HCP lanthanide. Used in FEA stress modeling of Dy₂O₃-containing nuclear fuel pellets (UO₂-Dy₂O₃ burnable poison) under thermal gradient loading, and in magnetostrictive Terfenol-D transducer models for sonar and active vibration control applications.

Chemical Properties

PropertyValue / BehaviorNotes
Oxidation States+3 (dominant and only stable state: DyCl₃, Dy₂O₃, Dy(NO₃)₃·5H₂O); +2 (DyI₂, rare, reducing)Dy³⁺ aqueous chemistry follows standard lanthanide patterns — forms stable salts with Cl⁻, NO₃⁻, SO₄²⁻; precipitates as Dy(OH)₃ above pH ~7; forms stable chelates with EDTA, DTPA, and DO3A macrocycles. Dy³⁺ chelates (Dy-DTPA, Dy-DO3A) are studied as T₂*/T₂ MRI contrast agents and as chemical exchange saturation transfer (CEST) agents for pH mapping.
Corrosion ResistancePoor in moist air; Dy₂O₃ surface layer forms within minutes; bulk Dy tarnishes slowly in dry air; reacts slowly with cold water, vigorously with hot waterDy metal must be stored under inert atmosphere or mineral oil to prevent surface oxidation. Dy reacts with dilute acids (HCl, H₂SO₄) to form Dy³⁺ solutions with H₂ evolution. Dy powder is flammable and must be handled with appropriate fire-suppression measures (no water — reacts to form DyO(OH) + H₂).
Surface OxideDy₂O₃ (cubic C-type rare-earth oxide structure) forms in air above ~200 °C; mixed DyO(OH)/Dy(OH)₃ in moist air at RTDy₂O₃ (mp ~2,340 °C) is a refractory oxide used as a stabilizer in HfO₂-based high-κ dielectric gate oxides (Dy-doped HfO₂) for sub-5 nm CMOS transistors, and as a neutron-absorbing phase in UO₂-Dy₂O₃ burnable poison fuel pellets for LWR reactivity control. Dy₂O₃ sputtering targets are used to deposit Dy-doped HfO₂ films with improved EOT and ferroelectric properties.
IdentifierValue
SymbolDy
Atomic Number66
CAS Number7429-91-6
UN NumberUN3089 (powder)
EINECS Number231-073-9
IsotopeTypeNotes
¹⁵⁶Dy Stable* 0.056% natural abundance; I = 0; Stable* — alpha decay to ¹⁵²Gd is energetically allowed; measured lower limit t½ > 1.8 × 10¹⁴ yr. The least abundant Dy isotope; low abundance makes it useful as an enriched spike for isotope dilution mass spectrometry (IDMS) quantification of Dy in geological, environmental, and magnet scrap recycling streams.
¹⁵⁸Dy Stable 0.095% natural abundance; I = 0. Used as an enriched target isotope for production of ¹⁵⁸Tb via ¹⁵⁸Dy(p,n)¹⁵⁸Tb — ¹⁵⁸Tb (t½ = 150.4 yr) is a long-lived calibration source and a precursor in Tb radiopharmaceutical research. Also used in IDMS Dy analysis.
¹⁶⁰Dy Stable 2.329% natural abundance; I = 0. Used as a reference isotope in Dy isotope ratio measurements by MC-ICP-MS for REE fractionation studies in geochemistry and for monitoring Dy mobility in NdFeB magnet leachates from mine tailings and recycling streams. ¹⁶⁰Dy(n,γ)¹⁶¹Dy contributes to neutron absorption in Dy burnable poison rods during reactor operation.
¹⁶¹Dy Stable 18.889% natural abundance; I = 5/2, NMR-active. ¹⁶¹Dy NMR (broad quadrupolar lines; chemical shift range ~1,000 ppm) is used to study Dy³⁺ coordination environments in solution and in solid-state NMR of Dy-containing optical ceramics and permanent magnet grain boundary phases. σ(thermal) = 600 barn — significant neutron absorber in reactor environments.
¹⁶²Dy Stable 25.475% natural abundance; I = 0. Used as a primary normalization isotope in Dy isotope ratio measurements alongside ¹⁶⁴Dy. ¹⁶²Dy is the most abundant even-A Dy isotope; even-A lanthanide isotopes (I = 0) are preferred for IDMS spike calibration due to absence of quadrupolar effects in mass spectrometry ion beam formation.
¹⁶³Dy Stable 24.896% natural abundance; I = 5/2, NMR-active. ¹⁶³Dy NMR complements ¹⁶¹Dy NMR for Dy³⁺ coordination characterization; the opposite sign of the quadrupole moment between ¹⁶¹Dy and ¹⁶³Dy enables cross-validation of solid-state NMR assignments. σ(thermal) = 124 barn.
¹⁶⁴Dy Stable 28.260% natural abundance — the most abundant Dy isotope; I = 0. Thermal neutron absorption cross-section σ ≈ 2,650 barn — the highest of any stable nuclide, ~3.5× that of ¹⁵⁷Gd (254,000 barn for ¹⁵⁷Gd actually exceeds it — but ¹⁵⁷Gd is only 15.7% abundant vs. ¹⁶⁴Dy at 28.3%; the per-element absorption of natural Dy exceeds natural Gd). ¹⁶⁴Dy(n,γ)¹⁶⁵Dy (t½ = 2.334 hr) → ¹⁶⁵Ho; the burn-up chain is used in self-regulating burnable poison reactor design. Natural Dy's extremely high neutron absorption (~994 barn effective for natural Dy) makes it the active species in DyₓHf₁₋ₓO₂ neutron-absorbing control materials.

Scientific & Research Applications

Use CaseForm Typically UsedDescription
Single-Molecule Magnets (SMMs) & Molecular NanomagnetsDy³⁺ coordination complexes (synthesized from DyCl₃ or Dy(OTf)₃); DySc metallofullerenesDy³⁺ SMMs (e.g., , Dy-pentalene complexes) hold the record for highest blocking temperature among single-molecule magnets (>60 K for the best bis-metallocene Dy³⁺ complexes), arising from Dy³⁺'s oblate 4f electron density and large magnetic anisotropy. These materials are the frontier of molecular spintronics and quantum information storage research, with potential for single-atom magnetic memory at liquid nitrogen temperatures.
Spin Ice & Frustrated Magnetism ResearchDy₂Ti₂O₇ single crystals and polycrystalline ceramics (grown from DyO and TiO₂ by float zone or flux methods)Dy₂Ti₂O₇ (dysprosium titanate pyrochlore) is the prototype spin-ice material — Dy³⁺ Ising spins on a pyrochlore lattice obey ice rules analogous to proton disorder in water ice, giving rise to emergent magnetic monopole-like quasiparticles ("monopoles") detectable by neutron scattering. A central system in quantum magnetism and topological field theory research.
Neutron Activation & DosimetryNatural Dy foil (99.9%+) or DyAl₃ pellets as flux monitorsDy foil is a standard thermal neutron flux monitor — the ¹⁶⁴Dy(n,γ)¹⁶⁵Dy reaction (σ = 2,650 barn) followed by γ counting of ¹⁶⁵Dy (t½ = 2.334 hr, 94.7 keV γ) enables precise neutron flux determination in research reactor and accelerator-based neutron source environments. The high cross-section gives excellent sensitivity at low flux levels compared to Au (σ = 98.65 barn) or In (σ = 193 barn) foils.
Magnetostrictive Materials ResearchTerfenol-D (Tb₀.₃Dy₀.₇Fe₂) polycrystalline rods and single crystals; Dy metal as precursorTerfenol-D (TbDyFe₂) exhibits giant magnetostriction (~1,000–2,000 ppm, 100–1,000× conventional magnetostrictive materials) — Dy content reduces anisotropy temperature dependence while Tb provides the large magnetostriction. Used in sonar transducers (submarine acoustic arrays), active vibration dampers, precision linear actuators, and energy harvesting devices. Dy is a critical component of all Terfenol-D production.
MRI Contrast Agent ResearchDy-DTPA, Dy-DO3A, and Dy-DOTA chelate complexes (synthesized from DyCl₃)Dy³⁺ has an extremely short T₂ relaxation enhancement capability due to its large magnetic moment — Dy chelates are studied as T₂/T₂* MRI contrast agents for blood pool and functional MRI applications, and as CEST (chemical exchange saturation transfer) agents for pH imaging. Dy³⁺ chelates are also studied as shift reagents in in vivo ³¹P and ²³Na NMR for compartmentalization studies.

Industrial & Commercial Applications

SectorForm / Grade UsedDescription
NdFeB Permanent Magnets (EV Motors & Wind Turbines)DyFe alloy additions (1–9 wt% Dy) or DyH₂ powder for grain boundary diffusion (GBD) into pre-sintered Nd-Fe-B magnetsDy addition to Nd₂Fe₁₄B magnets increases intrinsic coercivity from ~1,200 to >2,500 kA/m at RT, and from ~400 to ~1,200 kA/m at 150 °C — enabling safe operation in EV traction motors (100–180 °C magnet temperatures). Each high-performance EV motor requires ~100–300 g Dy; wind turbine generators ~1–2 kg Dy each. GBD processing (Dy diffusion from the magnet surface into grain boundaries) reduces Dy use by ~30–50% vs. bulk alloying while achieving equivalent coercivity.
Nuclear Reactor Control & Burnable PoisonUO₂-Dy₂O₃ pellets (0.5–5 wt% Dy₂O₃); Dy₂O₃ control rod inserts; DyHf alloy control rodsDy₂O₃ is mixed into UO₂ fuel pellets as a "self-regulating" burnable absorber in LWR fuel assemblies — ¹⁶⁴Dy burns up gradually over the fuel cycle while daughter nuclides (¹⁶⁵Ho) still absorb neutrons, giving a flatter reactivity vs. burnup curve than Gd or B burnable poisons. This reduces peak reactivity at beginning-of-life and allows higher initial enrichment, extending fuel cycle length in PWR and BWR designs.
Metal Halide LampsDyI₃ or DyBr₃ additive in lamp fill gas (Dy compound 0.1–1 wt%)Dy iodide/bromide additives in metal halide lamps produce intense, broad visible emission from Dy³⁺ 4f→4f and charge-transfer transitions, contributing to high color rendering index (CRI > 90) and high color temperature (5,500–6,500 K) suitable for film studio lighting, sports arena illumination, and color-critical printing and inspection applications.
High-κ Gate Dielectric (Dy-HfO₂)Dy₂O₃ sputtering targets (99.9–99.99%) for ALD/PVD of Dy-doped HfO₂Dy doping of HfO₂ thin films (1–5 at% Dy) stabilizes the high-κ tetragonal/orthorhombic phase, increases the dielectric constant (κ ~ 25–35 for Dy:HfO₂ vs. ~20 for HfO₂), reduces interface trap density, and can induce ferroelectric behavior in HfO₂ films — relevant to ferroelectric FET (FeFET) memory devices in sub-5 nm CMOS technology nodes.
PurityDescription
99% (2N)Basic purity dysprosium suitable for general industrial applications where minimal impurities are acceptable.
99.9% (3N)High-purity dysprosium ideal for scientific research, magnet development, and nuclear-grade materials where higher precision is required.
Synonym / Alternative NameContext
DyChemical symbol; from Greek dysprositos (hard to get) — named by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1886, reflecting the extreme difficulty of separating Dy from other lanthanides by 19th-century fractional crystallization methods. Used as the primary identifier in ICP-MS REE analysis, NdFeB magnet specification documents, and critical materials supply chain databases.
Dysprosium metalCommercial designation for elemental Dy in ingot, rod, foil, or powder form; used in NdFeB magnet producer procurement specifications (DyFe alloy, DyH₂ powder sourcing), sputtering target supplier datasheets, and Dy recycling industry documentation for spent magnet processing streams.
Dysprosium rare earth metalTrade and regulatory designation classifying Dy as a heavy rare-earth element (HREE) on EU Critical Raw Materials Act and US DOE Critical Minerals lists — Dy is one of the most supply-critical REEs due to overwhelming dependence on Chinese HREE ion-adsorption clay deposits and its non-substitutability in high-temperature NdFeB magnet applications for EVs and wind turbines.
Dysprosium rare earth elementGeochemical and mineralogical designation used in REE deposit assessments, environmental impact studies of rare-earth mining, and in IUPAC nomenclature for Dy-bearing mineral phases (xenotime, Dy-bearing monazite). Used in academic literature describing Dy geochemistry in marine sediments and hydrothermal systems.
Element 66Periodic table designation; used in XRF/ICP-MS analytical software, nuclear data libraries (ENDF/B-VIII for ¹⁶⁴Dy neutron cross-section data at 2,650 barn), and in reactor physics codes (MCNP, SERPENT) where Dy₂O₃ burnable poison cross-sections are specified by nuclide atomic number for neutron transport calculations.
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