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Zinc
Zinc (Zn, atomic number 30) is a Group 12 HCP metal with a low melting point of 419.5 °C, density of 7.14 g/cm³, and an exclusively +2 oxidation state — the only stable first-row d-block element with a completely filled d-shell ( 3d¹⁰4s²), which gives it distinctly non-transition-metal chemistry and electronic behavior. Zinc is the fourth most consumed metal globally (~14 million tonnes/year), extracted primarily from sphalerite (ZnS) by flotation, roasting to ZnO, and reduction — or by hydrometallurgical leach-SX-EW processing. It forms a protective ZnO/Zn₂(OH)₂CO₃ patina in moist air that significantly slows further corrosion. Zinc is an essential trace element in all living organisms — the second most abundant transition metal in the human body after iron — where it is a structural component of ~10% of all human proteins and the catalytic center of hundreds of metalloenzymes (carbonic anhydrase, carboxypeptidase, alcohol dehydrogenase).
Galvanization — applying a zinc coating to steel or iron to provide cathodic protection — accounts for ~50% of all zinc consumption and is the most cost-effective and widely used method of corrosion protection for structural steel. Hot-dip galvanizing (immersion in molten Zn at ~450 °C) produces a metallurgically bonded Zn-Fe alloy layer; continuous galvanizing lines coat steel sheet at speeds up to 200 m/min for automotive body panels, appliances, and construction products. Even where the coating is damaged, Zn acts as a sacrificial anode protecting the underlying steel — the basis of both galvanizing and Zn-rich primer paints. Zinc die casting (~17% of consumption, Zamak alloys Zn-Al-Cu-Mg) produces high-precision near-net-shape parts for automotive, electronics, and hardware applications at lower cost than aluminum die casting.
Zinc oxide (ZnO) is the most important Zn compound beyond galvanizing, consumed at ~1.5 million tonnes/year across rubber vulcanization (ZnO activator), sunscreen (UV-absorbing nanoparticles), ceramic glazes, and as a wide-bandgap semiconductor (Eg = 3.37 eV, exciton binding energy 60 meV) for transparent conductors, UV LEDs, and piezoelectric sensors. In battery technology, Zn metal is the negative electrode in primary alkaline cells (MnO₂/Zn, ~15 billion cells/year) and is being developed for rechargeable Zn-ion, Zn-air, and Zn-MnO₂ aqueous batteries as low-cost, safe alternatives to lithium-ion systems for grid storage. Stable Zn isotopes (⁶⁴Zn, ⁶⁶Zn, ⁶⁸Zn) are used as IDMS spikes in environmental and biomedical tracer studies; ⁶⁷Zn NMR characterizes Zn coordination in metalloproteins and coordination compounds.
General Properties
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Atomic Number | 30 | Group 12, Period 4; 3d¹⁰4s²; exclusively +2 oxidation state. The filled 3d shell makes Zn²⁺ a d¹⁰ ion with no d-d transitions — Zn salts are colorless and Zn is diamagnetic, unlike most transition metals. Zn²⁺ is a Lewis acid widely used in organozinc chemistry (Reformatsky reaction, Negishi coupling). |
| Atomic Mass | 65.38 u | Five stable isotopes: ⁶⁴Zn (48.6%, Stable*), ⁶⁶Zn (27.9%), ⁶⁷Zn (4.1%, NMR-active), ⁶⁸Zn (18.8%), ⁷⁰Zn (0.6%, Stable*). δ⁶⁶Zn/⁶⁴Zn fractionation (~0.3–1.0‰ per amu between sources) is used as a proxy for zinc cycling in marine biogeochemistry and ore genesis. |
| Density (20 °C) | 7.14 g/cm³ | Moderate density; lighter than Fe (7.87) but heavier than Al (2.70). Zinc's density combined with its low melting point and fluidity makes it ideal for die casting of intricate, thin-walled components with tight dimensional tolerances. |
| Melting Point | 419.53 °C (692.68 K) | Low melting point — a fixed point on the ITS-90 international temperature scale (419.527 °C), used to calibrate thermocouples and resistance thermometers. The low melting point enables hot-dip galvanizing at ~450 °C and pressure die casting at modest temperatures. |
| Boiling Point | 907 °C | Low boiling point for a metal — critical for distillation refining (New Jersey process, Imperial Smelting Process) and for understanding Zn loss by volatilization in high-temperature metallurgical processes such as steelmaking EAF dust. |
| Thermal Conductivity | 116 W/m·K | Good thermal conductivity — higher than steel (~50 W/m·K), contributing to Zn's utility in die-cast heat sinks and thermal management components for electronics where aluminum cost savings are prioritized over maximum conductivity. |
| Electrical Resistivity | 59 nΩ·m (20 °C) | Moderate conductivity for a metal. Zinc is not used as a primary electrical conductor, but galvanized steel's Zn coating does not significantly impede electrical continuity, important for grounded structural steelwork and lightning protection systems. |
| Crystal Structure | HCP, a = 2.665 Å, c = 4.947 Å; c/a = 1.856 (unusually high, ideal HCP = 1.633) | The anomalously high c/a ratio in Zn HCP reflects weak interlayer bonding and explains Zn's poor room-temperature ductility (limited slip systems available) and tendency to fail by cleavage along basal planes — responsible for "zinc pest" brittleness in impure Zn at low temperatures. |
Mechanical Properties
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Tensile Strength | 110–150 MPa | Low strength in pure form; Zn-Al-Cu die cast alloys (Zamak) reach 280–360 MPa. Pure Zn is used as a sacrificial anode where low strength is acceptable, while die cast Zn alloys handle structural loads in mechanical components. |
| Yield Strength | 30–60 MPa | Very low yield strength — Zn creeps significantly at room temperature (homologous temperature ~0.43 at 20 °C), which causes dimensional changes in die-cast Zn alloy parts over time and limits structural use without alloying. |
| Young's Modulus | 108 GPa | Moderate modulus — higher than expected for a low-melting metal, reflecting Zn's anisotropic HCP structure (E ranges from ~37 GPa along c-axis to ~123 GPa in basal plane directions in single crystals). |
| Hardness | 30–50 HB | Soft metal, easily scratched by steel. Hardness increases sharply with Al and Cu additions in Zamak alloys (80–120 HB). Zn's softness is exploited in zinc anodes for cathodic protection where uniform, controlled dissolution is required. |
| Elongation at Break | 25–45% | Acceptable ductility at room temperature; drops sharply below ~10 °C as basal slip becomes restricted. Pure Zn is cold-rolled into sheet for architectural applications (roofing, cladding) but requires careful temperature control during forming. |
| Poisson's Ratio | 0.25 | Typical for HCP metals. Used in FEA modeling of galvanized steel sheet forming and Zn anode dissolution kinetics in cathodic protection system design. |
Chemical Properties
| Property | Value / Behavior | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Oxidation States | +2 exclusively | The d¹⁰ configuration of Zn²⁺ is uniquely stable — no other oxidation state is accessible under normal conditions. Zn²⁺ coordinates readily with N, O, and S donors, forming the structural zinc finger motifs (Cys₂His₂, Cys₄) in ~3,000 human zinc-finger proteins regulating gene expression. |
| Corrosion Resistance | Excellent in neutral environments; forms protective ZnO/zinc carbonate patina; amphoteric — attacked by both strong acids and strong alkalis | Zinc's amphoteric nature (soluble in both HCl and NaOH) distinguishes it from most metals and limits use in strongly acidic or alkaline process environments. The self-healing zinc carbonate patina on galvanized steel (Zn + CO₂ + H₂O → ZnCO₃·3Zn(OH)₂) provides decades of corrosion protection in outdoor environments. |
| Surface Oxide | Zinc oxide (ZnO) | ZnO is a wide-bandgap semiconductor (Eg = 3.37 eV, n-type, wurtzite structure) used in UV photodetectors, piezoelectric sensors (MEMS), transparent conducting films, and varistors (ZnO + Bi₂O₃ grain boundary barriers for surge protection in power systems). ZnO nanoparticles are FDA-approved for sunscreen use as a UV absorber. |
| Identifier | Value |
|---|---|
| Symbol | Zn |
| Atomic Number | 30 |
| CAS Number | 7440-66-6 |
| UN Number | UN1436 (powder) |
| EINECS Number | 231-175-3 |
| Isotope | Type | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| ⁶⁴Zn | Stable* | 48.6% natural abundance; I = 0; Stable* — double electron capture to ⁶⁴Ni is energetically allowed (Q = 1.096 MeV) but not yet measured; t½ predicted >10¹⁸ yr. Most abundant Zn isotope; ⁶⁴Zn IDMS spike used in Zn stable isotope tracer studies of human zinc metabolism and ocean biogeochemistry. |
| ⁶⁶Zn | Stable | 27.9% natural abundance; I = 0. The δ⁶⁶Zn/⁶⁴Zn ratio (reported in ‰ relative to JMC Lyon Zn standard) is measured by MC-ICP-MS to ±0.02‰ precision and used to trace Zn sources in marine sediments, blood plasma fractionation, and ore deposit genesis. ⁶⁶Zn is a common IDMS reference isotope. |
| ⁶⁷Zn | Stable | 4.1% natural abundance; I = 5/2, NMR-active. ⁶⁷Zn NMR (chemical shift range ~500 ppm; broad lines due to quadrupolar relaxation in low-symmetry sites) characterizes Zn coordination in metalloenzymes, Zn-MOFs, and ZnO catalysts. ⁶⁷Zn-enriched compounds are used for solution and solid-state NMR of zinc metalloproteins. |
| ⁶⁸Zn | Stable | 18.8% natural abundance; I = 0. ⁶⁸Zn(p,n)⁶⁸Ga at proton cyclotrons produces the PET isotope ⁶⁸Ga (t½ = 68 min) — a key reaction for ⁶⁸Ge/⁶⁸Ga generator production. ⁶⁸Ga-DOTATATE and ⁶⁸Ga-PSMA-11 are FDA-approved PET radiopharmaceuticals for neuroendocrine tumor and prostate cancer imaging. |
| ⁷⁰Zn | Stable* | 0.6% natural abundance; I = 0; Stable* — double beta decay to ⁷⁰Ge is energetically allowed (Q = 1.001 MeV); t½ > 3.8 × 10¹⁸ yr (experimental lower limit). The least abundant stable Zn isotope; used as an enriched spike for IDMS measurement of zinc in geological and environmental samples. |
Scientific & Research Applications
| Use Case | Form Typically Used | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Biological & Nutritional Tracer Research | Enriched ⁶⁷Zn, ⁶⁸Zn, ⁷⁰Zn stable isotope solutions; Zn metal (99.99%+) for dissolution | Stable Zn isotope tracers administered orally or intravenously enable non-radioactive measurement of Zn absorption, retention, and turnover in human metabolic studies. Isotope ratio measurement by ICP-MS distinguishes tracer from natural abundance Zn in blood, urine, and fecal samples to quantify zinc bioavailability from foods and supplements. |
| ZnO Semiconductor & Photocatalysis Research | Zn sputtering targets (99.99%+), Zn powder (99.9%+) for ZnO synthesis | ZnO (wurtzite, Eg = 3.37 eV, n-type) is studied for UV photodetectors, transparent conducting films (AZO, GZO as ITO alternatives), piezoelectric MEMS, and photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants. Zn sputtering targets produce ZnO:Al (AZO) thin films for solar cell front contacts and flat panel display electrodes. |
| ⁶⁷Zn NMR Spectroscopy | ⁶⁷Zn-enriched metal, ZnO, or Zn salts (95–99% ⁶⁷Zn) | ⁶⁷Zn NMR probes Zn coordination geometry and symmetry in metalloenzymes, Zn-MOFs, and ZnO catalysts. Solid-state ⁶⁷Zn NMR (QCPMG, DFS pulse sequences) extracts quadrupolar coupling constants that report directly on the local symmetry of the Zn coordination environment in crystalline and amorphous materials. |
| Corrosion & Cathodic Protection Research | Zn rod/sheet (99.9%), Zn powder for Zn-rich coatings | Electrochemical studies of Zn dissolution kinetics, ZnO passivation mechanisms, and Zn anode performance in seawater, soil, and concrete inform cathodic protection system design for pipelines, offshore structures, and reinforced concrete. EIS (electrochemical impedance spectroscopy) and SVET (scanning vibrating electrode technique) map local corrosion activity on galvanized steel surfaces. |
| Thin-Film Deposition Research | Zn sputtering targets (99.95–99.999%), Zn evaporation pellets | Zn thin films are deposited by PVD for ZnO, ZnS, ZnSe, and ZnTe semiconductor layer growth used in photovoltaics, photodetectors, and electroluminescent devices. Zn-seeded ZnO nanowire growth (hydrothermal or CVD) is a standard synthesis route for piezoelectric nanogenerators and UV nanolasers. |
Industrial & Commercial Applications
| Sector | Form / Grade Used | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Galvanization | SHG Zn (99.995%), CGG Zn (99.99%), Zn-Al alloys (Galvalume, Galfan) | Hot-dip galvanizing (~50% of Zn use) coats steel with 45–85 µm Zn-Fe alloy layers providing 20–70 years of corrosion protection depending on environment. Galvalume (55% Al-43.5% Zn-1.5% Si) and Galfan (95% Zn-5% Al) coatings offer improved cut-edge and high-temperature corrosion resistance over pure Zn coatings for roofing and automotive applications. |
| Zinc Die Casting (Zamak Alloys) | Zamak 2, 3, 5 (Zn-Al-Cu-Mg alloys, ~96% Zn); Zn ingot (99.99%+) | Zamak die casting (~17% of Zn use) produces high-precision automotive hardware, electrical connectors, locks, and consumer electronics housings at cycle times of 2–10 seconds. Zn die casting enables thinner walls and tighter tolerances than Al die casting, with lower tooling costs and longer die life. |
| Batteries (Primary & Rechargeable) | Zn powder (99.9%+, 75–500 µm), Zn foil/sheet (99.9%+) | Zn is the negative electrode in alkaline MnO₂/Zn cells (~15 billion produced/year), zinc-carbon cells, and silver oxide watch batteries. Rechargeable Zn-MnO₂, Zn-air, and Zn-ion aqueous batteries are under development for grid storage — offering lower cost and higher safety than Li-ion with aqueous electrolytes. |
| Brass & Zinc Alloys | Zn ingot (99.95%+) as alloying addition to Cu, Al, and Mg | Brass (Cu-Zn, 5–45% Zn) is one of the most widely used engineering alloys — used for plumbing fittings, electrical connectors, musical instruments, and decorative hardware. Zn additions to Al (7000-series alloys, up to 8% Zn) produce the highest-strength commercial Al alloys (AA7075, AA7068) used in aerospace structures. |
| Rubber & Chemicals | ZnO powder (indirect process, 99.5%+); Zn stearate | ZnO is an essential rubber vulcanization activator (~0.5–5 phr, activates sulfenamide accelerators by forming Zn-accelerator complexes that generate sulfurating species). ZnO also serves as a white pigment, UV stabilizer in plastics, and active ingredient in antifungal and antibacterial products. |
| Purity | Description |
|---|---|
| 98.8% (1N88) | Standard purity zinc used in general industrial applications and galvanizing processes. |
| 99% (2N) | Improved purity suitable for alloy production and basic research materials. |
| 99.7% (2N7) | Higher purity zinc for enhanced corrosion resistance and specialty coatings. |
| 99.9% (3N) | Research-grade zinc for electronics, battery electrodes, and high-quality alloys. |
| 99.95% (3N5) | High purity zinc ideal for thin-film deposition and advanced materials research. |
| 99.98% (3N8) | Superior purity for semiconductor applications and specialized scientific investigations. |
| 99.99% (4N) | Electronic grade zinc used in microelectronics and precision coating processes. |
| 99.999% (5N) | Exceptional purity zinc for critical scientific research, nanotechnology, and advanced battery development. |
| 99.9998% (5N8) | Highest purity zinc for ultra-sensitive applications in electronics, optics, and quantum materials research. |
| Synonym / Alternative Name | Context |
|---|---|
| Zinc metal | Commercial designation for elemental Zn in ingot, shot, powder, foil, or target form; used in ASTM standards (B6 for Zn ingot), LME zinc grade specifications (SHG, HG, CGG), and trade documentation for galvanizing, die casting, and battery feedstock supply chains. |
| Elemental Zinc | Scientific designation distinguishing the pure element from ZnO, ZnS, ZnSO₄, and other compounds; used in nutritional and metabolic research literature to specify the metallic form in stable isotope tracer administration and electrochemical studies. |
| Element 30 | Periodic table designation; used in XRF and ICP-MS analytical software and educational contexts where the atomic number is the primary identifier for the element. |
| Zincum | Latin name for zinc; the etymological root of the element name in most European languages; appears in historical alchemical and early chemical literature; also used as the INN (International Nonproprietary Name) root in pharmaceutical zinc compound nomenclature. |