Rubidium

Rubidium — Material Page

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Rubidium (Rb, atomic number 37) is the fifth alkali metal — a soft, silvery-white Group 1 element with a melting point of only 39.3 °C (just above body temperature), a density of 1.532 g/cm³, and a standard electrode potential of –2.98 V vs. SHE, making it one of the most electropositive elements in the periodic table. With a BCC crystal structure, a single 5s¹ valence electron, and an atomic radius of 248 pm, rubidium sits between potassium (227 pm) and caesium (265 pm) in a group defined by monotonically increasing reactivity, decreasing melting point, and increasing atomic radius. Rubidium ignites spontaneously in moist air (forming Rb₂O and RbO₂ superoxide), reacts explosively with water (2Rb + 2H₂O → 2RbOH + H₂↑, more violently than K), and must be stored under mineral oil or in sealed ampoules under argon. It is a relatively rare element (~90 ppm crustal abundance — comparable to zinc), occurring as a trace substituent in potassium minerals (lepidolite mica, pollucite, carnallite) and recovered as a byproduct of lithium and caesium ore processing. Two naturally occurring isotopes exist: ⁸⁵Rb (72.17%, stable) and ⁸⁷Rb (27.83%, β⁻ radioactive, t½ = 49.23 Gyr) — the latter being the basis of Rb-Sr geochronology, one of the most widely applied radiometric dating systems in geology and cosmochemistry. Global rubidium production is only ~2–5 tonnes/year of metal, primarily serving atomic physics and specialty glass markets; demand has grown significantly since the 1990s as Rb vapor cells and atomic clocks proliferated in GPS, telecommunications, and quantum technology applications.

Rubidium's overwhelming scientific importance derives not from its bulk material properties but from the quantum mechanical behavior of individual rubidium atoms — specifically, the two naturally abundant isotopes provide complementary bosonic (⁸⁷Rb) and fermionic (⁸⁵Rb) model systems that have driven the most important experimental breakthroughs in atomic physics over the past three decades. The D₁ and D₂ absorption lines of rubidium (794.7 nm and 780.2 nm respectively, both accessible with standard GaAlAs diode lasers) make Rb the most experimentally accessible atom for laser cooling and trapping — the combination of accessible laser wavelengths, well-characterized hyperfine structure, and two-level approximation enables Doppler cooling of Rb atoms to sub-millikelvin temperatures in a magneto-optical trap (MOT) without the cryogenic infrastructure required for other atomic species. ⁸⁷Rb was the first atom used to achieve Bose-Einstein condensation (BEC) in a dilute gas at 170 nK (Cornell, Wieman, and Ketterle, 1995, Nobel Prize in Physics 2001), demonstrating macroscopic quantum coherence in a laboratory for the first time; the ⁸⁷Rb BEC has since become the workhorse system for studying superfluidity, quantum phase transitions, quantum simulation of many-body Hamiltonians, and atom interferometry for inertial sensing. Rubidium atomic clocks exploit the ground-state hyperfine splitting of ⁸⁷Rb (6.834,682,610.904 GHz, one of the most precisely known physical constants) for compact, low-power frequency standards deployed in GPS satellites, telecommunications base stations, and as holdover clocks in network timing equipment.

On the geological timescale, ⁸⁷Rb's β⁻ decay to ⁸⁷Sr (t½ = 49.23 Gyr) is the foundation of Rb-Sr geochronology and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr isotope geochemistry — two of the most widely applied quantitative tools in Earth science, used to date rocks and minerals from the Archean to the Quaternary and to trace the provenance and mixing of crustal reservoirs, ocean chemistry, and biological skeletons across deep time. Minerals with high Rb/Sr ratios (K-feldspar, muscovite, biotite, lepidolite) accumulate radiogenic ⁸⁷Sr progressively; the Rb-Sr isochron method applies to suites of co-genetic rocks or minerals that span a range of Rb/Sr ratios, enabling ages from ~100 Ma to >4 Ga with precision of ±0.5–2%. The initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio at the time of crystallization records the Sr isotopic composition of the source reservoir, providing a tracer for crustal vs. mantle contributions to magmas, continent-ocean mixing in seawater (the marine ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr curve spanning 500 Myr is a high-resolution stratigraphic tool), and ancient ocean water temperature/chemistry reconstruction from biogenic carbonates. Rubidium also finds niche but technically important roles in photomultiplier tube cathodes (Rb-Cs bialkali cathodes achieving quantum efficiencies >30% in the blue-green), specialty optical glass formulation, and as a getter material in vacuum tubes.

General Properties

Property	Value	Notes
Atomic Number	37	Group 1 (alkali metals), Period 5; 5s¹ electron configuration; sits between potassium (19) and caesium (55) in Group 1; first ionization energy 403.0 kJ/mol — the lowest of the common alkali metals accessible in metallic form (Cs: 375.7 kJ/mol, Rb: 403.0 kJ/mol, K: 418.8 kJ/mol); the low ionization energy directly enables the photoelectric effect in Rb photocathodes at visible wavelengths and the high vapor pressure needed for efficient laser cooling in MOTs at room temperature
Atomic Mass	85.468 u	Two naturally occurring isotopes: ⁸⁵Rb (72.17%, stable, I = 5/2) and ⁸⁷Rb (27.83%, β⁻ radioactive, t½ = 49.23 Gyr, I = 3/2); ⁸⁷Rb's t½ is ~3.5× the age of the universe — it is sufficiently long-lived that ⁸⁷Rb behaves as a stable nuclide for all chemical and physical purposes, yet the accumulated ⁸⁷Sr daughter product over geological time enables geochronology; δ⁸⁷Rb isotope ratios (MC-ICP-MS) are an emerging tracer for Rb biogeochemical cycling
Density (20 °C)	1.532 g/cm³	Denser than lithium (0.534), sodium (0.971), and potassium (0.862) but less dense than caesium (1.930 g/cm³); the monotonic density increase down Group 1 reflects increasing atomic mass outpacing the volume increase from the larger atomic radius; at 1.532 g/cm³, Rb sinks in water (unlike Li, Na, K) while still being ~6× less dense than iron; the moderate density makes Rb ampoule and capsule handling manageable compared to the very high density of Cs
Melting Point	39.3 °C (312.5 K)	Melts slightly above room temperature — Rb metal liquefies readily in a warm hand or water bath, enabling transfer and handling in the liquid state under inert atmosphere; the low melting point (and correspondingly high vapor pressure at relatively low temperatures) is essential for practical loading of Rb vapor cells and magnetometer sensors, which typically operate Rb metal reservoirs at 50–100 °C to maintain optimal Rb vapor density (~10¹⁰ atoms/cm³); within Group 1: Li (180.5 °C), Na (97.7 °C), K (63.5 °C), Rb (39.3 °C), Cs (28.4 °C)
Boiling Point	688 °C (961 K)	Rb D-line emission (780 and 795 nm) is strongly visible in flame photometry and in discharge lamps above ~300 °C; the vapor pressure of Rb reaches 1 Pa at ~160 °C and 100 Pa at ~270 °C — these relatively low temperatures are operationally important for heated Rb vapor cells used in optical pumping magnetometers (OPMs), atomic clocks, and electromagnetically induced transparency (EIT) experiments; Rb vapor cells are typically operated at 60–120 °C for OPMs and 50–80 °C for Rb frequency standards
Thermal Conductivity	58.2 W/m·K	Moderate thermal conductivity for an alkali metal — lower than potassium (102.5 W/m·K) and lithium (84.7 W/m·K), reflecting the increasing phonon scattering from the larger, more polarizable 5s electron cloud; thermal properties of Rb metal are rarely the primary engineering concern — its role is almost exclusively as a vapor-phase atomic physics medium or as a precursor for Rb compounds
Electrical Resistivity	128 nΩ·m (20 °C)	Moderate resistivity — higher than K (72 nΩ·m) and Na (47.7 nΩ·m), reflecting increased electron-phonon scattering from the larger Rb lattice; the metallic conductivity of Rb is not utilized in any practical electrical application — all Rb uses involve either the vapor phase (atomic physics, spectroscopy) or ionic Rb⁺ compounds (glass, getters); the electrical properties are listed for completeness and for equation-of-state research at high pressure, where Rb undergoes a superconducting transition above ~10 GPa
Crystal Structure	BCC; a = 5.585 Å (room temperature)	BCC structure at ambient conditions; transitions through several high-pressure phases (fcc above ~7 GPa, then complex incommensurate structures) analogous to other alkali metals under compression; the very large BCC lattice constant (5.585 Å vs. K 5.321 Å) reflects Rb's large atomic radius; the BCC structure contributes to Rb's extreme softness and low melting point through weak metallic bonding in the large-radius, one-valence-electron system

Mechanical Properties

Property	Value	Notes
Tensile Strength	~2 MPa	Among the lowest tensile strengths of any solid element — rubidium has essentially no structural applications; it is handled as a chemical reagent, sealed in glass or metal ampoules, or processed in glovebox environments; the very low strength (comparable to soft wax or butter) means that Rb components deform plastically under any applied mechanical load at room temperature; all Rb handling requires inert atmosphere due to the reactivity concern, far more than the mechanical concern
Young's Modulus	2.4 GPa	One of the lowest elastic moduli of any solid element — ~87× lower than iron (211 GPa) and ~29× lower than aluminum (70 GPa); comparable to soft rubber; reflects the near-complete absence of directional covalent bonding character and the very low cohesive energy of the 5s¹ BCC lattice; the compressibility of Rb makes it an important model system for high-pressure equation-of-state studies, where it undergoes a rich sequence of structural phase transitions and becomes superconducting
Hardness	Mohs ~0.3	The softest of the common alkali metals — softer than caesium (Mohs ~0.2 by some measures, though the ranking of Cs and Rb varies by source), below potassium (~0.4), and substantially below lithium (~0.6); can be deformed by the lightest finger pressure; the softness is entirely academic for Rb given that contact with a bare hand would cause a violent exothermic reaction with skin moisture

Chemical Properties

Property	Value / Behavior	Notes
Reactivity with Water	Explosive; ignites H₂ immediately; produces RbOH solution	2Rb + 2H₂O → 2RbOH + H₂↑ (ΔH more negative than K reaction); the reaction is sufficiently exothermic and fast that the H₂ ignites instantly and the Rb piece typically detonates on water contact — significantly more dangerous than potassium; even atmospheric moisture on a cold day is sufficient to ignite Rb metal; Class D metal fire — conventional extinguishants (water, CO₂, dry chemical) are all contraindicated; extinguish only with dry sand, dry graphite powder, or Met-L-X Class D agent
Reactivity with Air	Ignites spontaneously; forms Rb₂O and RbO₂ superoxide; tarnishes in milliseconds	Rubidium ignites spontaneously in dry air at room temperature — unlike K and Na which tarnish rapidly but do not always ignite; the primary oxidation product in excess O₂ is the superoxide RbO₂ (yellow-orange), alongside Rb₂O; RbO₂ crusts on aged Rb metal are highly reactive with water and organic materials and represent a serious disposal hazard; Rb is stored in sealed glass ampoules under argon or vacuum, or submerged in dry hydrocarbon oil; opened Rb ampoules must be handled in a Schlenk line or glovebox with <1 ppm O₂ and H₂O
Oxidation State	+1 exclusively (Rb⁺)	Rb⁺ ionic radius 152 pm (octahedral coordination) — significantly larger than K⁺ (138 pm) but smaller than Cs⁺ (167 pm); Rb⁺ selectively binds the crown ether dibenzo-24-crown-8 and the cryptand with high affinity, forming the basis of Rb⁺-selective electrodes; the Rb⁺/K⁺ similarity (Rb⁺ is only 10% larger than K⁺) allows Rb⁺ to substitute for K⁺ in biological systems, which is the basis of ⁸²Rb cardiac PET imaging — Rb⁺ is taken up by Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase in myocardial cells proportionally to perfusion, enabling viability mapping
Vapor Pressure	Significant above ~50 °C; ~10⁻⁴ mbar at 70 °C; ~1 mbar at 160 °C	The accessible vapor pressure of Rb at modest temperatures (50–150 °C) is operationally the most important physical property for atomic physics applications — the vapor density determines the optical depth of Rb vapor cells used in atomic clocks, magnetometers, and laser spectroscopy; the Antoine equation for Rb vapor pressure is well-characterized from 40–800 °C; SAES getter-dispensed Rb sources (non-evaporable Rb compounds in getter strip format, activated at ~400 °C in vacuum) provide a convenient, safe method for loading Rb into sealed vacuum cells without handling bulk Rb metal

Identifier	Value
Symbol	Rb
Atomic Number	37
CAS Number	7440-17-7
UN Number	UN1423 (rubidium metal, solid)
EINECS Number	231-126-6

Isotope	Type	Notes
⁸⁵Rb	Stable	72.17% natural abundance; I = 5/2, NMR-active (large quadrupole moment; ⁸⁵Rb NMR used alongside ⁸⁷Rb NMR for characterizing Rb coordination in glasses, ionic conductors, zeolites, and rubidium-ion battery materials); ⁸⁵Rb is a bosonic isotope (even neutron number) — it can form a BEC, as demonstrated in 2000 using a Feshbach resonance to tune the scattering length near zero and avoid collapse; ⁸⁵Rb has a broad, negative scattering length at zero field (a₀ = –443 a₀), making it initially unsuitable for stable BEC without scattering length tuning by a Feshbach resonance near 155 G; used in atomic clock vapor cells alongside ⁸⁷Rb; the D₁/D₂ transitions of ⁸⁵Rb are slightly shifted from ⁸⁷Rb by the isotope shift, distinguishable by high-resolution spectroscopy
⁸⁷Rb	Radioactive*	27.83% natural abundance; t½ = 49.23 × 10⁹ yr (β⁻, Emax = 283.3 keV — no gamma emission); decays to stable ⁸⁷Sr; I = 3/2, NMR-active (smaller quadrupole moment than ⁸⁵Rb, sharper NMR lines in many environments — ⁸⁷Rb NMR is the preferred nucleus for solid-state Rb characterization); the ⁸⁷Rb/⁸⁷Sr decay system is the basis of Rb-Sr geochronology: ⁸⁷Rb in K-rich minerals (K-feldspar, muscovite, biotite, lepidolite) decays to ⁸⁷Sr, which accumulates over geological time; the Rb-Sr isochron method dates rocks and minerals from ~50 Ma to >4 Ga with precision of ±0.5–2%; the initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio distinguishes mantle-derived magmas (~0.703) from crust-contaminated melts (>0.710) and is a fundamental tracer of crustal evolution; the marine ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr curve (0.7068–0.7092 over the Phanerozoic, measured in marine carbonates by TIMS) is a widely used stratigraphic tool; in atomic physics, ⁸⁷Rb is the bosonic workhorse: it has a positive scattering length (a = +100 a₀), enabling stable BEC formation without Feshbach resonance tuning — ⁸⁷Rb was the first atom used to achieve BEC (JILA, 1995, T_c ~170 nK in a magnetic trap with ~2000 atoms); the ground-state hyperfine splitting of ⁸⁷Rb (\|F=2, m_F=0⟩ → \|F=1, m_F=0⟩, frequency 6,834,682,610.904 Hz) is the operational frequency of rubidium atomic clocks — clock-transition insensitivity to magnetic fields (m_F=0) gives stability of ~10⁻¹¹ per day in compact Rb cell standards
⁸²Rb	Radioactive	t½ = 75 seconds (β⁺/EC, 3.38 MeV maximum — the highest-energy positron emitter used in clinical PET imaging); produced from an ⁸²Sr/⁸²Rb generator (⁸²Sr t½ = 25.5 days, produced in cyclotrons from ⁸⁵Rb(p,4n)⁸²Sr); the ⁸²Sr/⁸²Rb generator (CardioGen-82, Bracco) provides on-demand ⁸²Rb at the point of care without on-site cyclotron access; ⁸²Rb⁺ is a potassium analog taken up by Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase in viable myocardial cells proportionally to regional myocardial perfusion — enabling first-pass cardiac PET perfusion imaging; ⁸²Rb PET/CT is the gold-standard for non-invasive detection of coronary artery disease (sensitivity ~90%, specificity ~80%), widely used in North America (FDA-approved 1989) at ~100,000 procedures/year; the ultra-short t½ (75 s) means the patient receives a full-body scan within 5–7 minutes of injection with minimal radiation dose (~3–6 mSv); the generator format makes ⁸²Rb accessible at large cardiac imaging centers without cyclotron infrastructure

Scientific & Research Applications

Use Case	Form Typically Used	Description
Laser Cooling, BEC & Quantum Simulation	Rb metal ampoules (99.9%), SAES getter dispensers, Rb vapor cells; ⁸⁷Rb or ⁸⁵Rb isotopically enriched sources	⁸⁷Rb is the workhorse atom for ultracold physics — its accessible D₂ cooling transition at 780.2 nm (GaAlAs diode laser), positive scattering length enabling stable BEC, and well-characterized ground-state hyperfine structure make it ideal for MOT loading (~10⁹ atoms), sub-Doppler cooling to ~2 µK, evaporative cooling to BEC at ~170 nK, and optical lattice loading for quantum simulation of Hubbard models. ⁸⁷Rb BEC in optical lattices reproduces the superfluid-to-Mott insulator quantum phase transition, directly simulating quantum magnetism models. ⁸⁵Rb provides a bosonic species with tuneable scattering length via Feshbach resonance for studies of BEC collapse (Bosenova), soliton formation, and strongly interacting regimes.
Rubidium Atomic Clocks & Frequency Standards	Rb vapor cell (sealed, with ⁸⁷Rb + buffer gas N₂/Ar); Rb metal reservoir at 60–80 °C	Rubidium cell frequency standards exploit the magnetically insensitive hyperfine clock transition of ⁸⁷Rb at 6.834,682,610.904 GHz for compact, low-power frequency references achieving stability of ~5×10⁻¹¹ per day and accuracy of ~10⁻⁹ (disciplined by GPS). Rb oscillators are deployed in every GPS satellite (as backup/holdover to the primary Cs clock), telecommunications base stations (for synchronization of CDMA/LTE/5G networks), network timing equipment, and scientific instruments. Chip-scale atomic clocks (CSACs) using Rb vapor cells occupy <16 cm³ and consume <120 mW, enabling positioning devices, inertial navigation systems, and portable quantum sensors where GPS is unavailable. Research-grade Rb fountain clocks achieve accuracy to ~10⁻¹⁵.
Optical Pumping Magnetometers (OPMs)	Rb vapor cell (sealed, 2–10 mm diameter, Rb reservoir at 50–120 °C), 795 nm or 780 nm pump laser	Optically pumped Rb magnetometers (both spin-exchange relaxation-free, SERF, and scalar OPMs) achieve sensitivities of ~1 fT/√Hz in the SERF regime (zero-field operation) and ~1 pT/√Hz in scalar mode — competitive with or exceeding SQUID magnetometers for low-frequency magnetic field measurement without the need for cryogenic cooling. Rb OPMs are now deployed in wearable magnetoencephalography (MEG) systems (FieldLine, QuSpin) for brain mapping without the rigid helmet constraint of SQUID systems, enabling developmental neuroscience in infants and motion-tolerant clinical MEG; in magnetocardiography (MCG) for cardiac imaging; and as the detector element in ultrasensitive NMR at Earth field and in portable explosives detection systems.
Electromagnetically Induced Transparency (EIT) & Slow Light	Rb vapor cell (heated, 5–50 mm path length), two-photon coupling on D₁ or D₂ line	Rubidium's Λ-type three-level system (two ground-state hyperfine levels coupled to a common excited state) provides an ideal medium for EIT — a quantum interference effect that renders an otherwise opaque medium transparent on the probe laser and creates an extremely steep dispersion that reduces the group velocity of light to meters per second ("slow light"). ⁸⁷Rb EIT was used in the seminal slow-light experiments (Hau et al., Harvard, 1999 — group velocity 17 m/s in BEC; Kash et al., Phillips, 1999 — 90 m/s in hot vapor), and Rb EIT is the standard platform for demonstrations of optical quantum memory (storing photonic qubits as atomic coherences), coherent photon storage for quantum repeaters, and quantum-enhanced sensing via spin squeezing.
Rb-Sr Geochronology Standards	Rb-rich mineral reference materials (NIST SRM Mica-Fels, NBS-607 K-feldspar), enriched ⁸⁷Sr spike solution for IDMS	Rb-Sr isochron geochronology uses a suite of co-genetic minerals (whole-rock, feldspar, mica, pyroxene) with different Rb/Sr ratios to construct an isochron whose slope yields the age and whose y-intercept gives the initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio. Measurements are made by thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) with precision of ±0.002% on ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios (external reproducibility ~0.01‰). Applications span Archean cratons (~3.5–4.0 Ga), Precambrian basement characterization, metamorphic thermochronology, and ore deposit dating. The marine ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr secular curve is used for chemostratigraphy of carbonate sequences — a ~±1 Ma stratigraphic resolution tool for the Cenozoic.
Spectroscopy Calibration & Atomic Structure	Rb vapor cell, Rb hollow-cathode lamp, enriched isotope cells	The rubidium D lines (D₁: 794.760 nm; D₂: 780.241 nm) are among the most precisely measured atomic transitions, providing absolute wavelength calibration references for near-IR laser spectroscopy and frequency metrology. Saturated absorption spectroscopy in an Rb cell resolves the hyperfine structure of the D₁ and D₂ manifolds (up to 6 components) at sub-Doppler resolution, providing a free, room-temperature frequency reference accurate to ~1 MHz for diode laser locking. Rb two-photon transitions (5S→5D at 778.1 nm, two-photon) provide Doppler-free frequency references used in optical frequency standards and studies of the Rydberg constant.

Industrial & Commercial Applications

Sector	Form / Compound Used	Description
GPS & Telecommunications Timing	Rb oscillator module (sealed Rb vapor cell + microwave cavity); commercial Rb frequency standards (e.g. Stanford Research PRS10, Jackson Labs CSAC)	Rubidium oscillators are the dominant secondary frequency standard in GPS satellites (each Block IIR/IIF/III satellite carries 3 Rb and 1–2 Cs clocks), providing clock stability during GPS ground contact loss. In telecommunications, Rb oscillators provide SONET/SDH synchronization holdover at Stratum 2 level (~±1.6 µs/day wander budget). Each GPS satellite requires ~3 Rb clocks; the current ~30-satellite GPS constellation represents ~90 Rb oscillators in orbit at any time, with ~10 replacement satellites launched per year. Miniaturized Rb oscillators are also used in underwater navigation, seismic monitoring, and time-transfer for financial trading systems.
Specialty Glass & Photocathodes	Rb₂CO₃ or RbNO₃ glass batch additions; Rb-Cs bialkali photocathode (RbCsSb)	Rubidium carbonate (Rb₂CO₃) is added to specialty optical glasses to increase refractive index, improve UV transmission, and reduce the glass transition temperature — used in scintillator window glasses, fiber optic preforms, and specialty optical components for spectroscopy. Rubidium-caesium antimonide (Rb-Cs-Sb, bialkali) photocathodes achieve peak quantum efficiency of ~30% at 380–420 nm (blue-green spectral range) and are the standard photocathode material in high-sensitivity photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) used in particle physics detectors, scintillation gamma cameras, and LIDAR receivers. Rb-Cs photocathodes provide ~3× higher QE than pure Cs₃Sb photocathodes in the blue spectral range most relevant to NaI(Tl) and BGO scintillator emission.
Vacuum Getter & Vapor Dispensers	SAES Rb getter dispensers (RbCrO₄ + reducing alloy in metal strip); Rb metal sealed in glass ampoules	Rubidium getter dispensers (SAES Getters St 1 series, activated at 400–500 °C in vacuum) provide a safe, precise method for loading Rb vapor into sealed vacuum cells — eliminating the need to handle reactive Rb metal directly during device assembly. A precisely weighed Rb compound is reduced in vacuum by heating, releasing a controlled quantity of Rb vapor into the cell volume. Used in production of Rb atomic clock cells, OPM sensor heads, and Rb vapor cells for laser spectroscopy. Rb metal is also used as a bulk getter in sealed vacuum tubes to maintain residual vacuum by absorbing H₂, O₂, CO, and N₂ at operating temperatures.
⁸²Rb Cardiac PET Imaging (as ⁸²Sr/⁸²Rb Generator)	CardioGen-82 generator (⁸²SrCl₂ on SnO₂ column); ⁸²RbCl eluate in saline	The ⁸²Sr/⁸²Rb generator provides on-demand ⁸²Rb⁺ for cardiac PET at major imaging centers without requiring an on-site cyclotron — ⁸²Rb is the most widely used cardiac perfusion PET tracer in North America (~100,000–200,000 procedures/year). The ⁸²RbCl solution is injected IV and the Rb⁺ ion distributes proportionally to myocardial perfusion (via Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase uptake); a 75-second half-life allows rapid 5-minute rest and stress scans with minimal patient radiation dose. ⁸²Rb PET has superior diagnostic accuracy vs. SPECT for detection of multivessel coronary artery disease and is the preferred modality for obese patients and those with artifacts in SPECT imaging.

Purity

Main Use

99.9% (3N)

High-purity rubidium for all primary applications — the standard grade for loading Rb vapor cells and atomic clock resonators (where alkali metal impurities at >0.1% could broaden hyperfine linewidths or degrade clock contrast), laser cooling experiments and BEC preparation (where trace reactive metal impurities could contaminate the ultra-high-vacuum chamber and degrade base pressure), OPM sensor fabrication, Rb-Sr geochronology standard preparation, and photocathode deposition; also the grade for SAES getter dispenser charging and synthesis of high-purity RbCl, RbNO₃, Rb₂CO₃, and organorubidium compounds

Synonym / Alternative Name	Context
Rb	Chemical symbol; from Latin rubidus (deep red) — rubidium was discovered in 1861 by Bunsen and Kirchhoff using flame spectroscopy, identified by its characteristic deep-red spectral lines at 780 and 795 nm (the D₁ and D₂ transitions); it was the second element discovered by spectroscopy (caesium was discovered months earlier in the same year using the same technique), demonstrating the power of spectroscopic element identification that would define atomic physics for the following century
Rubidium metal	Standard commercial and regulatory designation for the elemental form; used in UN dangerous goods classification (UN1423, Class 4.3, water-reactive flammable solid — Packing Group I, the highest hazard class), REACH/CLP safety data sheets, laboratory supply catalogues, and export control documentation; the primary commercial product form is Rb metal sealed in glass ampoules under vacuum or argon, in quantities of 1–100 g; bulk Rb metal is also supplied in sealed stainless steel containers for larger-scale synthesis operations
Rubidio	Spanish language name; also the element name in Italian (Rubidio), Portuguese (Rubídio), and Romanian (Rubidiu); used in Spanish and Italian scientific and regulatory documentation; the root rubidus (deep red) is consistent across all Romance language variants, preserving Bunsen and Kirchhoff's original spectroscopic naming rationale

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