Lithium

Lithium — Material Page

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Lithium (Li, atomic number 3) is the lightest solid element, the lightest metal, and the least dense solid element at 0.534 g/cm³ — so light it floats on water, and less than half the density of water itself. As the first alkali metal beyond hydrogen and helium, lithium has a single valence electron in the 2s shell, giving it the highest specific heat capacity of any solid element (3.58 J/g·K), an anomalously high melting point for an alkali metal (180.5 °C, far above sodium at 98 °C and potassium at 63 °C), and the most negative standard electrode potential of any element (–3.04 V vs. SHE) — the electrochemical property that makes lithium the ideal anode material for high-energy-density batteries. Lithium is silvery-white, soft enough to be cut with a knife (Mohs ~0.6), and highly reactive — it tarnishes rapidly in air (forming Li₂O and Li₃N), reacts vigorously with water (less violently than sodium), and must be stored under mineral oil or inert gas. Despite its crustal abundance of ~20 ppm (comparable to cobalt and nickel), lithium's production is geographically concentrated — the "Lithium Triangle" of Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile holds ~55% of global brine reserves, and Australia dominates hard-rock (spodumene) production. Lithium is classified as a critical raw material by both the EU and US, with demand projected to increase 5–10× by 2030 driven primarily by electric vehicle battery deployment.

Lithium's defining application in the 21st century is as the anode and electrolyte-salt element in lithium-ion batteries, the energy storage technology that has transformed portable electronics and is now transforming transportation and grid storage. The lithium-ion battery (commercialized by Sony in 1991 using LiCoO₂ cathode and graphite anode) exploits lithium's unique combination of the most negative electrode potential (–3.04 V), lowest atomic mass (6.941 g/mol), and smallest ionic radius of any alkali metal (Li⁺ 76 pm) — enabling the highest gravimetric and volumetric energy density of any rechargeable electrochemistry. Modern LIB cells achieve 250–300 Wh/kg at the cell level; battery packs for EVs achieve 150–250 Wh/kg at the pack level (Tesla 4680: ~296 Wh/kg cell level). The cell chemistry has evolved from LCO (LiCoO₂) through NMC, NCA, and LFP (LiFePO₄) cathodes paired with graphite, silicon-graphite, or lithium metal anodes — with all-solid-state lithium metal batteries (using Li foil anode and ceramic or polymer electrolyte) as the next major step, promising >400 Wh/kg and elimination of flammable liquid electrolyte. Lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆) is the standard electrolyte salt in all current commercial LIBs; lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) and other salts are used in solid-state and polymer electrolytes.

Beyond batteries, lithium's nuclear properties, pharmaceutical activity, and its role in specialty glasses, ceramics, and lubricants make it one of the most multifunctional elements in applied chemistry. ⁶Li has the highest thermal neutron absorption cross-section of any stable light isotope (~940 barn) and undergoes the ⁶Li(n,α)T reaction (tritium breeding) — making enriched ⁶Li metal the fuel for thermonuclear weapons (lithium deuteride) and the tritium breeding material planned for ITER and future fusion power plants. ⁷Li (92.5% natural abundance) is the standard isotope for lithium NMR spectroscopy and is added to pressurized water reactor (PWR) coolant as LiOH·H₂O to control coolant pH and minimize corrosion — the high-purity ⁷Li requirement for PWR chemistry was one of the major incentives for the industrial ⁶Li/⁷Li separation programs of the Cold War. In medicine, lithium carbonate (Li₂CO₃) has been used since 1949 to treat bipolar disorder — it remains the gold-standard mood stabilizer for bipolar I disorder and one of the few pharmacological agents with demonstrated antisuicidal properties, despite the narrow therapeutic window requiring serum lithium monitoring.

General Properties

Property	Value	Notes
Atomic Number	3	Group 1 (alkali metals), Period 2; the lightest solid element; 2s¹ electron configuration; sits above sodium and potassium in Group 1 but behaves differently in some respects — lithium's high charge density (Li⁺ radius 76 pm vs. Na⁺ 102 pm) makes its chemistry closer to Mg²⁺ (diagonal relationship) than to Na⁺ in many coordination and solubility properties
Atomic Mass	6.941 u	Two stable isotopes: ⁶Li (7.59%) and ⁷Li (92.41%); the low atomic mass is central to lithium's electrochemical performance — the theoretical gravimetric capacity of a Li metal anode is 3,860 mAh/g (vs. graphite at 372 mAh/g); the ⁶Li/⁷Li ratio (δ⁷Li) varies in geological samples and is used as a geochemical tracer for weathering, seawater chemistry, and ore-forming processes
Density (20 °C)	0.534 g/cm³	The lowest density of any solid element; less than half the density of water (1.0 g/cm³); roughly one-third the density of aluminum (2.70 g/cm³); the low density makes Li-Al alloys (up to 4.2 wt% Li) the lightest structural aerospace alloys — each 1 wt% Li reduces Al density by ~3% and increases Young's modulus by ~6%
Melting Point	180.5 °C (453.65 K)	Anomalously high for an alkali metal (Na: 97.7 °C; K: 63.4 °C; Rb: 39.3 °C; Cs: 28.4 °C) — lithium's small atomic radius and strong metallic bonding give it a higher cohesive energy than heavier alkali metals; the relatively high mp allows lithium metal to be handled as a solid at ambient conditions, unlike cesium and rubidium
Boiling Point	1,342 °C (1,615 K)	Wide liquid range (~1,162 °C); lithium has been studied as a nuclear reactor coolant for high-temperature reactors due to its liquid range and heat transfer properties — lithium fluoride-based molten salt mixtures (FLiBe) are the proposed coolant/fuel salt for molten salt reactors and ITER's tritium breeding blanket
Thermal Conductivity	84.7 W/m·K	Good thermal conductivity for a light metal — higher than sodium (142 W/m·K relative to density ratio) and comparable to aluminum (237 W/m·K at less than one-quarter the density; relevant to heat dissipation in lithium metal battery cells and to lithium's use as a heat transfer medium; highest specific heat capacity of any solid element (3.58 J/g·K)
Electrical Resistivity	92.8 nΩ·m (20 °C)	Moderate resistivity for a metal; sufficient for battery current collector applications; lithium is a superconductor under high pressure (>20 GPa, Tc up to ~20 K) — the highest Tc of any element under pressure; at ambient pressure lithium does not superconduct
Crystal Structure	BCC (at room temperature); transforms to FCC/hR9 at low temperature	BCC at room temperature (a = 3.511 Å); transforms to a complex 9R (rhombohedral) structure at ~77 K and FCC below ~70 K — a complex low-temperature polymorphism driven by quantum zero-point motion; the BCC structure is stable under ambient conditions for all practical applications

Mechanical Properties

Property	Value	Notes
Hardness	Mohs ~0.6; ~5 MPa compressive strength	Among the softest solid elements — softer than sodium and only slightly harder than cesium; can be cut with a knife and deforms easily; highly malleable and ductile at room temperature; lithium foil (0.1–1.0 mm) can be rolled to <100 µm for battery anode applications without fracture
Elastic (Young's) Modulus	4.9 GPa	Very low modulus — comparable to soft polymers; reflects the weak metallic bonding of the large-orbital 2s electron in lithium; the low stiffness is a practical challenge for lithium metal anode batteries, where the Li foil must be handled and assembled without tearing or folding, requiring careful electrode engineering
Reactivity with Environment	Reacts with O₂, N₂, H₂O, CO₂ in air	Lithium is unique among alkali metals in reacting directly with N₂ at room temperature (forming Li₃N, a black-grey tarnish layer visible within minutes in air); also forms Li₂O in dry air and Li₂CO₃ in moist air; reacts with water (2Li + 2H₂O → 2LiOH + H₂, vigorous but less violent than Na/K); must be stored under mineral oil or inert atmosphere (Ar); handling requires inert atmosphere glovebox for battery research applications

Electrochemical & Nuclear Properties

Property	Value	Notes
Standard Electrode Potential	–3.045 V vs. SHE (Li⁺/Li)	The most negative standard electrode potential of any element — more negative than sodium (–2.71 V), potassium (–2.93 V), and even calcium (–2.87 V); drives the high cell voltage of lithium batteries (>3 V vs. ~1.2 V for NiMH); enables theoretical specific energy of ~11,400 Wh/kg for a Li-O₂ cell — the fundamental upper bound driving research into lithium-air batteries
Theoretical Anode Capacity	3,860 mAh/g (Li metal); 3,579 mAh/cm³	~10× higher than graphite (372 mAh/g) and ~3× higher than silicon (3,579 mAh/g by mass, but much higher by volume); the key driver for lithium metal anode development in solid-state batteries; practical capacity is limited by lithium plating/stripping efficiency and dendritic lithium formation, which solid electrolytes aim to suppress mechanically
⁶Li Neutron Cross-Section	~940 barn (thermal neutrons, ⁶Li(n,α)T reaction)	⁶Li has one of the highest thermal neutron cross-sections of any stable isotope; the reaction ⁶Li + n → ⁴He + T (tritium, Q = +4.78 MeV) is exothermic and the primary tritium breeding reaction for fusion reactors (ITER, planned commercial reactors); enriched ⁶Li deuteride (LiD) was the thermonuclear fuel in hydrogen bomb designs (Teller-Ulam); ⁶Li enrichment was one of the largest isotope separation programs of the Cold War
Oxidation State	+1 exclusively (Li⁺)	Li⁺ is the only stable oxidation state; ionic radius 76 pm (tetrahedral) / 90 pm (octahedral); the high charge density of Li⁺ (charge/radius = 1/76 = 0.013, highest of alkali metals) drives strong solvation in polar solvents and strong coordination to oxygen donors — explaining lithium's unusual affinity for nitrogen (Li₃N), its diagonal relationship to Mg²⁺, and the high binding energy of Li⁺ in LiCoO₂ and other cathode materials

Chemical Properties

Property	Value / Behavior	Notes
Stability in Air	Reacts within minutes; tarnishes black (Li₃N) then white (Li₂O, Li₂CO₃)	Lithium is unique among alkali metals in its rapid reaction with N₂ (forming Li₃N, a fast ionic conductor used in battery research); in moist air, Li₂CO₃ and LiOH form a white crust; fresh cut lithium is bright silver; glovebox handling (Ar, H₂O <1 ppm, O₂ <1 ppm) is standard practice for battery research with lithium foil and powder
Surface Oxide/Passivation	Li₂O (primary); Li₃N; LiOH; Li₂CO₃ (in moist air)	The solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) that spontaneously forms on lithium metal and graphite anodes in LIB electrolytes is a complex mixed Li₂O/Li₂CO₃/LiF layer — its composition, thickness, and mechanical properties largely determine battery cycling efficiency and calendar life; engineering the SEI through electrolyte additives is one of the most active areas in battery research
Organolithium Chemistry	n-BuLi, s-BuLi, t-BuLi, PhLi — powerful carbanion bases/nucleophiles	Organolithium reagents (n-butyllithium, lithium diisopropylamide/LDA, lithium hexamethyldisilazide/LiHMDS) are among the strongest bases and most powerful nucleophiles in organic synthesis — essential for directed metalation, asymmetric synthesis, and polymer initiation (living anionic polymerization of styrene and butadiene rubber uses n-BuLi initiator); handled in THF, diethyl ether, or hexane at –78 °C under inert gas
Molten Salt Chemistry	LiF-BeF₂ (FLiBe), LiCl-KCl eutectic, Li₂CO₃ electrolyte	FLiBe (LiF-BeF₂ molten salt, mp ~459 °C) is the primary coolant/moderator candidate for molten salt reactors (ORNL MSRE) and the tritium breeding blanket salt for ITER fusion experiments; LiCl-KCl eutectic is used in pyrochemical reprocessing of used nuclear fuel (electrorefining); molten Li₂CO₃ electrolyte at 650 °C is the basis of molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) for stationary power generation

Identifier	Value
Symbol	Li
Atomic Number	3
CAS Number	7439-93-2
UN Number	UN1415 (lithium metal, solid)
EINECS Number	231-102-5

Isotope	Type	Notes
⁶Li	Stable	7.59% natural abundance; I = 1, NMR-active (lower quadrupole moment than ⁷Li, giving sharper NMR lines in some environments); thermal neutron absorption cross-section ~940 barn via ⁶Li(n,α)T — far higher than ⁷Li (~0.045 barn); the ⁶Li(n,α)T reaction is exothermic (Q = +4.78 MeV) and is the primary tritium breeding reaction in fusion reactor designs (ITER blanket, planned commercial fusion plants); enriched ⁶Li metal (lithium deuteride, LiD) was the thermonuclear fuel in hydrogen bomb secondaries; ⁶Li-enriched LiOH is added to nuclear reactor coolant for neutron shielding; enriched ⁶Li used in neutron detector scintillators (⁶Li-glass, ⁶LiI:Eu)
⁷Li	Stable	92.41% natural abundance; I = 3/2, NMR-active; ⁷Li NMR spectroscopy (quadrupole nucleus, common and straightforward) is used to characterize lithium coordination in LIB electrolytes, solid electrolytes (LLZO, LGPS), cathode materials (Li-NMC, Li-LFP), lithium-conducting glasses, and pharmaceutically active lithium compounds; ⁷Li-enriched LiOH (depleted ⁶Li to <0.01%) is the standard additive to PWR reactor coolant to control pH (Li target 2.2 ppm), preventing intergranular stress corrosion of stainless steel and reducing ⁸⁶Rb/⁸⁸Rb radiolytic byproducts; δ⁷Li MC-ICP-MS measurements (±0.1–0.3‰) trace continental weathering rates, submarine groundwater discharge, and seawater Li cycle over geological time

Scientific & Research Applications

Use Case	Form Typically Used	Description
Lithium Metal Anode Research	Li foil (50–250 µm), Li powder, Li ribbon (glovebox handling)	Lithium metal anodes (theoretical capacity 3,860 mAh/g, ~10× graphite) are the target anode for next-generation all-solid-state batteries (ASSBs) and lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries. Research focuses on suppressing lithium dendrite growth (which causes short circuits), engineering stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) through electrolyte additives and artificial SEI coatings, and developing solid electrolytes (Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂/LLZO, Li₆PS₅Cl/LPSC) that mechanically suppress dendrite penetration while providing fast Li⁺ conductivity (>10⁻³ S/cm).
Nuclear Fusion Tritium Breeding	Enriched ⁶Li metal, Li₂TiO₃ ceramic pebbles, FLiBe molten salt	ITER and planned commercial fusion reactors require tritium breeding from ⁶Li via ⁶Li(n,α)T — the only feasible long-term tritium source for D-T fusion. ITER's tritium breeding blanket test modules use ⁶Li-enriched Li₄SiO₄ and Li₂TiO₃ ceramic pebbles; future commercial blankets may use FLiBe molten salt (LiF-BeF₂) with ⁶Li enrichment to ~90%. Breeding ratio requirements and ⁶Li enrichment levels are active areas of neutronics research for achieving tritium self-sufficiency in fusion power plants.
Battery Electrolyte & Electrode Research	LiPF₆, LiTFSI, LiFSI salts; Li₂CO₃, LiOH electrolyte precursors	Lithium salts (LiPF₆ in EC/DMC for conventional LIBs; LiTFSI/LiFSI in solid-state and high-voltage electrolytes) define the electrochemical window, ionic conductivity, and SEI chemistry of the battery. Research targets electrolytes stable to >5 V (enabling high-voltage cathodes), compatible with Li metal anodes, and operable at extreme temperatures (–40 to +70 °C for EV applications). Lithium-ion transport number, transference, and solvation structure are characterized by ⁷Li NMR, PFG-NMR diffusion measurements, and impedance spectroscopy.
Organic Synthesis (Organolithium Reagents)	n-BuLi, s-BuLi, LDA, LiHMDS (in hexane, THF, diethyl ether)	Organolithium reagents are indispensable tools in synthetic organic and polymer chemistry: n-butyllithium (n-BuLi, pKa ~50) deprotonates essentially any C-H bond; LDA and LiHMDS are hindered, non-nucleophilic strong bases for thermodynamic enolate formation; PhLi is a powerful aryl nucleophile. Living anionic polymerization initiated by n-BuLi produces narrow-dispersity styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), polystyrene, and block copolymers used in footwear, tires, and adhesives — lithium-initiated anionic polymerization produces the vast majority of solution SBR globally.
Laser Cooling & Atomic Physics	Enriched ⁶Li or ⁷Li atomic beam; MOT cooling	Lithium atoms are widely used in ultracold physics experiments — ⁶Li is a fermionic isotope used to study BCS-BEC crossover, Fermi superfluidity, and strongly correlated quantum matter in optical lattice simulators; ⁷Li is bosonic and used in Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) experiments. Lithium's simple two-electron spectrum and accessible laser cooling wavelengths (671 nm doublet) make it one of the standard atomic physics workhorses alongside Na, Rb, Cs, and K.
PWR Reactor Coolant Chemistry	⁷Li-enriched LiOH (⁶Li <0.01%), pharmaceutical grade	⁷Li-enriched lithium hydroxide (typically 10–200 ppm LiOH in primary coolant) is added to PWR reactor coolant water to control pH (7.2–7.4 at RT) and minimize intergranular stress corrosion cracking of steam generator tubing and primary circuit stainless steel. ⁷Li enrichment (>99.99% ⁷Li) is essential because ⁶Li activates to tritium (³H) via neutron capture, producing radioactive contamination; ⁷Li LiOH for reactor use is one of the specialized isotope-separated products with significant national security sensitivity given its dual-use potential.

Industrial & Commercial Applications

Sector	Form / Compound Used	Description
Lithium-Ion Batteries (EV & Consumer)	Li metal (future anodes); Li compounds: LiCoO₂, LiNiMnCoO₂, LiFePO₄, LiPF₆	Lithium-ion batteries are the dominant energy storage technology for consumer electronics (100% market share), electric vehicles (~95% new EV models by 2024), and increasingly grid-scale storage. Total global Li demand for batteries is ~500,000 tonnes LCE/year (2024) and growing at ~20–25%/year. The cathode chemistry mix has shifted dramatically toward LFP (LiFePO₄, lower cost, no cobalt) for standard-range EVs and stationary storage; NMC 811/9-0.5-0.5 retains share in long-range EVs for energy density. Future all-solid-state batteries (Toyota, Samsung SDI, Solid Power) targeting 2028–2030 will use Li metal anodes.
Lithium Greases & Lubricants	Lithium 12-hydroxystearate soap thickener (Li grease)	Lithium-based greases (thickened with lithium 12-hydroxystearate, prepared by saponification of 12-HSA with LiOH) account for ~75% of all grease production globally — the dominant lubricant for automotive wheel bearings, chassis joints, industrial equipment, and general-purpose lubrication. Lithium greases provide excellent water resistance, mechanical stability, and a wide operating temperature range (–30 to +120 °C); lithium complex greases extend this to +200 °C. Lithium grease displaced sodium, calcium, and barium greases after the 1940s due to its superior performance profile.
Aerospace Aluminum-Lithium Alloys	Al-Li alloys (1–4.2 wt% Li): 2099, 2195, 2050, 8090	Aluminum-lithium alloys (2xxx and 8xxx series, up to 4.2 wt% Li) are the lowest-density structural aerospace alloys — each 1 wt% Li reduces density by ~3% and increases Young's modulus by ~6%, enabling 10–15% weight reduction vs. conventional 2024/7075 Al alloys. Used in Airbus A380/A350 fuselage panels (2196, 2198), Space Launch System fuel tanks (2195), and military aircraft structures. The δ′ (Al₃Li) precipitate provides age hardening; high Li content improves modulus but reduces ductility and fracture toughness, requiring careful alloy design.
Glass & Ceramics (Lithium Compounds)	Li₂CO₃, Li₂O, spodumene (LiAlSi₂O₆) in glass batches	Lithium compounds (Li₂CO₃, Li₂O, spodumene) are added to specialty glass and glass-ceramic compositions to lower melting temperature, reduce thermal expansion coefficient (enabling zero-CTE glass-ceramics: Zerodur, NEXCERA, CorningWare), and improve chemical durability. LTCC (low-temperature co-fired ceramic) substrates for RF modules use lithium-borosilicate glass. Li₂O in borosilicate glass strengthens the network and improves UV transmission. The ceramizable porcelain trade uses Li₂CO₃ to flux compositions for whiteware and stoneware production.
Pharmaceuticals (Lithium Carbonate/Citrate)	Li₂CO₃ (Eskalith, Lithobid) and lithium citrate (oral solution)	Lithium carbonate and lithium citrate are the standard pharmacological treatments for bipolar I disorder — approved by the FDA in 1970 and recommended as first-line mood stabilizers in NICE, APA, and WHO guidelines. Lithium reduces manic episode frequency by ~50% and is the only pharmacological agent with robust evidence for antisuicidal efficacy. The mechanism is not fully understood but involves inhibition of inositol monophosphatase (IMPase), glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β), and neuroprotective neurotrophic factor upregulation. Narrow therapeutic window (0.6–1.2 mEq/L serum, toxic >1.5 mEq/L) requires regular blood monitoring.
Air Treatment & CO₂ Scrubbing	LiOH (lithium hydroxide monohydrate) granules	Lithium hydroxide (LiOH) is the standard CO₂ scrubbing agent for submarine life support systems, spacecraft (Apollo, Space Shuttle, ISS Soyuz vehicles), and emergency breathing apparatus — the reaction 2LiOH + CO₂ → Li₂CO₃ + H₂O removes 1 mol CO₂ per 2 mol LiOH at the highest gravimetric efficiency of any CO₂ sorbent (~0.92 g CO₂/g LiOH vs. NaOH ~0.55 g/g), critical where weight is at an absolute premium. LiOH granules in canisters were the CO₂ scrubbers in the Apollo Lunar Module and in Soviet submarine emergency breathing systems.

Purity

Main Use

99% (2N)

General industrial applications and alloying — suitable for Al-Li aerospace alloy additions (2099, 2195), lithium grease soap preparation (LiOH saponification), and general synthetic chemistry where sub-1% impurities (primarily Na, K) are acceptable; the standard grade for most industrial lithium compound synthesis

99.9% (3N)

Higher-performance battery research, pharmaceuticals, and specialty alloys — the standard grade for lithium metal anode electrode fabrication (coin cell and pouch cell research), Li-S battery prototype assembly, organolithium reagent synthesis (n-BuLi, LDA preparation), and pharmaceutical-grade LiOH and Li₂CO₃ production where sub-1,000 ppm metallic impurities are required for controlled therapeutic use and electrochemical purity

Synonym / Alternative Name	Context
Li	Chemical symbol; from Greek lithos (λίθος), meaning stone — named by Johan August Arfwedson, who discovered lithium in 1817 in the mineral petalite (LiAlSi₄O₁₀) from a Swedish mine; Jöns Jacob Berzelius named it lithium from lithos because, unlike the other alkali metals then known (sodium from plant ash, potassium from wood ash), lithium came from a mineral (stone) source
Lithium metal	Standard commercial designation for the elemental form; used in battery supply chain documentation, UN dangerous goods classification (UN1415, Class 4.3 water-reactive flammable solid), REACH/RoHS filings, and aerospace alloy procurement specifications
Elemental lithium	Scientific term distinguishing pure lithium metal from lithium compounds (Li₂CO₃, LiOH, LiPF₆, LiFePO₄, Li₂TiO₃, n-BuLi, etc.) across battery, nuclear, and pharmaceutical chemistry literature
Li metal (battery grade)	Trade designation for high-purity lithium foil and ribbon (typically ≥99.9% Li, Na <50 ppm, K <20 ppm) supplied for lithium metal anode battery research and all-solid-state battery prototype fabrication; strict Na/K control is required because these impurities preferentially deposit during lithium plating, causing localized corrosion and dendrite initiation
⁶Li / ⁷Li (isotopically enriched)	Trade designations for isotopically enriched lithium: enriched ⁶Li (>95% ⁶Li) for fusion tritium breeding, neutron detector scintillators, and thermonuclear device applications; enriched ⁷Li (>99.99% ⁷Li) for PWR reactor coolant LiOH chemistry; isotopic enrichment is achieved by COLEX (column exchange) or ASEX (amalgam exchange) processes; both isotopes are sensitive dual-use materials subject to export control in many jurisdictions

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